What was the name of the most ancient Russian letter. Birch bark letters. Spelling and alphabet history

Map of cities where birch bark letters were found

Birch bark letters have long been associated in our minds with Veliky Novgorod, as the main place where these historical documents were found.

What is a birch bark letter? Where and when was the birch manuscript used? What are the most interesting letters found on the territory of Russia?

The first collection of birch bark letters was collected in Tsarist Russia by the Novgorod collector V.S. Peredolsky, however, at that time few believed that these were "the writing of our ancestors." Unfortunately, the first collection of manuscripts on the birch bark was irretrievably lost.
What is a birch bark letter?
The upper part of the birch bark is called birch or birch bark. Soft and easy-to-handle birch was often used in Russia on the farm, in the manufacture of household utensils, for artistic crafts, and as a material for writing. These ancient "letters of our literate ancestors" are called birch bark letters. Namely, the manuscripts on birch bark are material evidence of the wide distribution of the writing of Ancient Russia of the 10th century and Medieval Russia up to the 15th century. Swedes and Germans used birch bark for writing in the 15th century and later. A birch bark manuscript was found in Tallinn on german 1570. There is a mention that the American Indians also knew the writing on birch bark.

Before writing on the birch, the bark of the birch was removed from the birch and first processed, cut into sheets of the same size. The cut sheets with important business records could even be stitched into a book so as not to lose.

Cuts (letters) on birch bark were applied using "Wrote" - a pointed stick, the letters turned out to be angular and not always even. In ancient Russian letters, natural dyes were sometimes used as ink, in order to rub out the cuts and highlight the message inscribed on the birch bark. The same was done in ancient India - the letters were first scratched on soft birch, and then covered with one of the natural dyes.

It is believed that birch bark and bark as a convenient material for writing began to be used in the Mesolithic or Neolithic in many parts of the world. In the last century, archaeologists found a Sanskrit manuscript of the 7th century AD. in India, a number of Buddhist texts of the 5th century. On the territory of Tuva in 1960, Tibetan medieval writings were found written in birch bark with magical texts of a sacred nature.

The bark of birch and other trees was used in Ancient Greece, Egypt and Rome, and later in the Mediterranean countries, wax-coated tablets and "style" - a special pointed stick for writing letters began to be used for teaching writing.

In the European part of Russia, the first finds of a manuscript on a birch bark were found in 1951 in Veliky Novgorod July 26 at the Nerevsky excavation site. Now this date is celebrated in Veliky Novgorod as “ Day of birch bark letter ".
During archaeological excavations in Veliky Novgorod, birch bark letters were found written in Latin, Russian, Karelian, German, Greek. An interesting find was the Russian-Karelian dictionary for tribute collectors.

Certificate number 9. Novgorod, 1160-1180: " From Guest to Vasil... What my father and relatives gave me in addition, after him. And now, by marrying a new wife, he gives me nothing. Shaking my hands (as a sign of a new engagement), he chased me away, and took the other as his wife. Come, do mercy "

Diploma No. 109 Novgorod, 1100-1120. : "Diploma from Zhiznomir to Mikula. You bought a slave girl in Pskov, and now the princess grabbed me for it (convicting theft). And then the squad vouched for me. So send a letter to that husband if he has a slave. But I want to, having bought horses and put [on the horse] of the prince's husband, [go] to confrontations. And you, if you haven't taken that money [yet], don't take anything from him "

In Smolensk, they found a birch bark with a runic letter, which, apparently, was used by the inhabitants of Smolensk, runes similar in writing to the runes of Old Scandinavian writing. During archaeological excavations in ancient Russian cities, about 1200 letters have already been found. Most of the manuscripts on birch, almost 1100, were found in Veliky Novgorod, the rest of the finds, sometimes in a single copy, were found in Staraya Russa, Torzhok, Vologda, Smolensk, Moscow, Pskov and other cities of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus.

Before the advent of paper in the 15th century, all important government documents were written on parchment, which was very expensive. Due to the appearance and widespread distribution of paper, birch bark, as a writing material, fell out of use, although there were some cases of using birch in the XX century. For a long time, common people continued to use birch bark for teaching children to read and write, and writing letters and memos. That is why numerous birch bark letters reflect precisely the spoken language of Ancient Rus, as well as common literary works.
Some of the most interesting ancient Russian handwritten letters are 20 birch bark manuscripts on birch bark and with drawings by Onfim, which were found by archaeologists in July 1956. A real treasure from an armful of birch bark leaves was thrown on an ancient pavement, on an area of \u200b\u200babout 10 square meters. According to dendrochronological data from the bridge, archaeologists have established the time of the creation of the letters - this is the interval 1234-1268 years, that is, birch bark letters are now about 750 — 780 years.

One birch bark says: “ Bow from Onfim to Danila. " The beginning of the Old Russian message always began with a bow to his interlocutor. Researchers of birch bark letters "From Onfim" found out that they were written by a Russian boy named Onfim, full name Anfimy.

The authorship of Onfim's birch bark letters is confirmed by one of the drawings - a self-portrait with a signature "Onѳime" ... Imitating adults, the boy wrote on birch bark, taught to read and write, and having fun, drew funny drawings.
The nature of the outline of angular letters on birch bark left no doubt that the boy Onfim was learning to write, the bulk of the alphabet letters belonged to educational records when children were taught read and write "in warehouses". The cuts on the birch bark show that Onfim has already learned to write letters and warehouses well, and for the sake of training he consolidates the skill of writing on birch bark. The researcher of birch bark manuscripts V.L. Yanin believes that initially the boy wrote on a wax tablet, on which it is much easier to write, since no great effort is needed.

A piece of birch bark along the edge is punched with holes, apparently, it was part of the bottom of a birch bark tuyeska, which fell apart, and Onfim began to draw little men on it and write exercises for writing alphabet letters, warehouses of individual words, and standard writing texts, turns of Old Russian speech. On the other side of the birch bark lettering is a drawing of Onfim, a rider galloping on a horse and striking a beast with a spear, the signature “ Bow from Onfim to Danila "and the inscription on the four-legged beast: "I am a beast" - "this is a beast."

On the outside of the birch bark, Onfim painted conquered people with raised rake hands. The number of fingers on the hands is different, but this does not mean that Onfim cannot count most likely, he simply does not yet realize the need to draw exactly five fingers on his hand.
The main value of the find of 20 sheets of Onfim's birch bark letters lies in the fact that it is a clear evidence of the process of primary education in Ancient Russia and its features.
found in the Taynitsky Garden of the Moscow Kremlin during archaeological excavations in 2007. Of all known to science birch bark manuscriptsXIV-XV centuries, Moscow birch bark certificate No. 3 considered the longest Old Russian text on birch bark, and is remarkable for many reasons.

— Largest by word count Old Russian letter, contains about 370 words, that is, it is twice the volume of the largest previously known birch bark letter.

- Moscow birch bark certificate is athe first diploma of Moscow containing coherent text. Before that, only small fragments were found.

— The first economic document of the late XIV - early XV century from the Moscow Kremlin, which has come down to us in the original.

- This diploma demonstrates a developed rich Old Russian horse breeding terminology.

- The peculiarity of the Moscow birch bark letter is that it written in ink.

— Lines of the text of the letter are inscribed across the fibers of the birch bark, as in the previous Moscow diplomas. This means that in Moscow the writing of birch bark manuscripts was different from the Novgorod letters, where birch bark was written along the fibers.

- Moscow birch bark certificate No. 3is an inventory of the property of a noble noble Turabeya , probably compiled by the manager of his farm named Elbuga ... Most likely, the inventory was drawn up after Turabey's death.

Name Turabey in medieval Russia was not rare.Tur is a bison, and the ancient Russian warrior, brave knight was called Tur. In the old Russian word “Bogatyr” there is the word “tur” - * baɣatur (hence the Hungarian bátor “brave”), Danube-Bulg. - βαγάτουρ, tour and the name « Tour+hit», possibly meant "Tour fighter", a warrior like Tur (bison) ... Based on the context of the document and where it was found, it can be assumed that Turabey was a wealthy Moscow nobleman , the owner of one of the Moscow courtyards on the Podol of the Kremlin, and the owner of land near Suzdal.

The author of the inventory lists in detail the people who served with Turabey - "young people", and the for military service salary in silver , as well as dependent peasants - "Strangers" (from the word "Strada" - field work), livestock, some household items that were apparently used for cooking and drinking during common meals: "Boiler of beer iron", "boiler of copper buckets in two". The horses that belonged to Turabey and were probably an important part of his property are described in particular detail. Document compiler late XIV century separates riding horses, used for riding, and "stray", used for field work.

The diploma reveals to us the world of everyday economic life of the Moscow nobility at the end of the XIV-XV centuries, shows the complex organization of the economy, which required thoughtful management and accurate accounting of property, and introduces the names of people who inhabited Moscow in the era of Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1350 - 1389) and his son Vasily Dmitrievich. A noticeable part of the names mentioned in the charter are the names of the Muslim world - of Turkic or Arabic origin: Bayram, Ahmed and Jalor are in the group of "young people", that is, mercenary soldiers. Central characters of the letter Turabey and Elbuga - the main bearers of power. The presence of eastern names in the Moscow charter is understandable and testifies to the admission of people from the Horde to the service of the Moscow princes at the end of the XIV century.

Diplomas of the boyars Mishinichi
In August 1953, a birch bark was found in Novgorod the Great diploma number 94 , which marked the beginning of a whole detective investigation.

“The peasants beat their foreheads to Mr. Yuri Ontsiforovich about the housekeeper, because, sir, we cannot please him with anything. That, sir, from the village ..., sir, is driving him away, but for himself, sir, ...? "

From the Russian chronicles of the 15th century, historians are well aware of the boyar of the Mishinich (Antsiferovich) clan Yuri Ontsiforovich, elected in 1409 as mayor of the Novgorod Republic, and who held this position until his death in 1417. For the first time boyar Yuri Ontsiforovich was mentioned among other Novgorod boyars in Russian chronicles and various documents in 1376. Boyarin Yuri Ontsiforovich led the Novgorod army, built many churches in Veliky Novgorod, regularly traveled with the embassy to neighbors, laid the city of Yama (now Kingisepp).

Of course, in Veliky Novgorod, the name Yuri was encountered very often, but not many Novgorodians could boast of the patronymic Ontsiforovich, moreover, with a respectful address "master". Berest " to Mr. Yuri Ontsiforovich " was found near Kozmodemyanskaya Street, where the same Yuri Ontsiforovich lived, in the layer of earth of the sixth tier of the Nerevsky excavation, that is, it belonged to the XIV-XV centuries.

A little later, next to the found birch bark certificate No. 94, archaeologists unearthed an old Russian estate with the remains of a stone foundation. This is the only one stone building with 1,100 wooden houses in this excavation. On the territory of the estate with a stone foundation, another birch bark No. 97 was found, where the addressee is Yuri, named by the master - “To mister Yuri the chelom bee Ortm'ka and Deitsa. Sell \u200b\u200brye at ... " This birch bark dates back to the early 15th century.

Even later, the inscription is made from two fragments of birch bark: “A bow from Nufrei to the pos (adnik Mr. Onsifor) and Smen. Lord Onsiphora, your robe and servant, my children. I have Neverovitsi d ... " (one of the translation versions).

There is only one Ontsifor in the lists of Novgorod mayors - the father of Yuri Ontsiforovich, Ontsifor Lukinich, also the most famous person in the history of Novgorod. All in the same 1953, two more birch bark letters were found with the name of Onzifor on the territory of this estate.

In 1955, birch bark No. 157 was found near the estate, with the following text: “Mister Mikhail Yuryevich is beaten with a forehead by the peasants of the Chechens. You, sir, ordered us to rearrange (that is, put anew) the courtyard, and the key keeper tells us, sir, to rearrange ... "

This is how the third generation of Novgorod mayor appeared in one clan - Mikhail Yurievich, the son of Yuri Ontsiforovich, and the grandson of Ontsifor Lukinich. Such a conclusion was made by the characteristic naming “master” and the respectful use of the patronymic, which was the privilege of the boyars. The fact that Yuri Ontsiforovich had a son, Mikhail, became known from other chronicle documents. And later, letter # 301 was found, which already directly indicated their relationship - "To Mr. Mikhail Yuryevich, the son of a posadnich, your servant Klya beats his forehead ..."

As a result, after several years of excavations, we can say with confidence the following - birch bark letters made it possible to link 6 generations of the Mishinich boyars, as well as to reveal the history of two estates that belonged to them. And these were not just boyars - they were an Old Russian clan, represented by four generations of elected mayors who played a significant role in the life of Veliky Novgorod in the 13th-15th centuries, representing one of the main political forces Of the Novgorod Republic.

Birch bark letters are private messages and documents of the 10-16th centuries, the text of which was applied to the birch bark. The first such documents were found by Russian historians in Novgorod in 1951 during an expedition in archeology under the direction of the historian A.V. Artsikhovsky. Since then, in honor of this find, a holiday is celebrated every year in Novgorod - the Day of the Birch Bark Letter. That expedition brought nine more such documents, and by 1970, 464 of them had already been found. Archaeologists found Novgorod birch bark letters in the soil layers, where the remains of plants and ancient debris were preserved.

Most of the birch bark letters are personal letters. They touched upon various economic and household issues, passed orders and described conflicts. Birch bark letters of half-joking and frivolous content were also found. In addition, copies were found by Arkhipovsky, which contained protests of peasants against the masters, complaints about their fate and lists of noble faults.

The text on birch bark letters was drawn by a simple and primitive method - it was scratched out with a sharply sharpened metal or bone writing (pin). The birch bark was pretreated so that the letters came out clear. In this case, the text was placed on a birch bark in a line, in most cases without division into words. Fragile ink was almost never used in writing. A birch bark letter is usually short and pragmatic, containing only the most important information. What the addressee and the author know is not mentioned in it.

Many later documents and letters written on birch bark are kept in archives and museums. Whole books have even been found. Russian ethnographer and writer, said that he himself saw a birch bark book in the Mezen with the Old Believers.

As a writing material, it became widespread in the 11th century, but lost its importance by the 15th century. It was then that paper, which was cheaper, found wide application among the population of Russia. Since then, birch bark has been used as a secondary recording material. It was mainly used by commoners for personal records and private correspondence, and official letters and messages of state importance were written on parchment.

Gradually, the birch bark also left everyday life. In one of the found letters, in which the complaints to the official were recorded, the researchers found instructions to rewrite the contents of the birch bark letter on parchment and only then send it to the address.

The dating of the letters occurs mainly in a stratigraphic way - on the basis of the layer in which the thing was discovered. A number of birch bark letters are dated due to the mention of historical events or important persons in them.

Birch bark letters are an important source on the history of our language. It is from them that you can establish the chronology or degree of fame of any linguistic phenomenon, as well as the time of appearance and etymology of a particular word.There are many words that are found in letters, unknown from other ancient Russian sources. Basically, these are words of everyday meaning, which practically did not have a chance to get into the works of writers of that time.

Until 1951, there was a strong opinion that only select social strata received education in Russia. This myth was dispelled by the find of archaeologists, which took place on July 26, 1951 in Novgorod. Experts have discovered a birch bark letter, preserved from the 14th century, or rather a scroll of birch bark, which could easily be mistaken for a fishing float, with words scrawled on it.

An ancient note, which listed the villages that paid a duty to some Roma, was the first to dispel the opinion about the general illiteracy of the population of Russia. Soon in Novgorod and other cities, archaeologists began to find more and more records, confirming that merchants, artisans, and peasants could write. AiF.ru tells what our ancestors thought and wrote about.

The first birch bark letter. It is highly fragmented, but it consists of long and completely standard phrases: "From such and such a village there was so much mud and daru," therefore it is easily restored. Photo: RIA Novosti

From Gavrila to Kondrat

Unlike most traditional monuments of the XI-XV centuries, people wrote birch bark letters simple language, because the addressee of the message was most often members of their own family, neighbors or business partners. They resorted to writing on birch bark in case of momentary need, therefore, most often, household orders and household requests are found on birch bark. For example, the letter of the XIV century known as number 43 contains the most ordinary request to send a servant and a shirt with him:

“From Boris to Nastasya. As soon as this letter arrives, send me a man on a stallion, because I have a lot to do here. Yes, came the shirt - I forgot my shirt. "

Sometimes, in the monuments found by archaeologists, one can find complaints and threats. For example, the 12th century birch bark letter known as No. 155 turned out to be a note, the author of which demands to compensate him for the damage caused in the amount of 12 hryvnias:

“From Polchka (or: Shelf) to ... [After you (?)] Took the girl from Domaslav, Domaslav took 12 hryvnias from me. 12 hryvnias came. If you do not send, then I will stand (meaning: with you for judgment) before the prince and the bishop; then get ready for a bigger loss. "

Birch bark letter No. 155. Source: Public Domain

With the help of birch bark letters, we can learn more about the daily life of our ancestors. For example, letter number 109 of the 12th century is dedicated to the incident with the purchase of a stolen slave by a vigilante:

“Diploma from Zhiznomir to Mikula. You bought a slave in Pskov, and now the princess grabbed me for it (meaning: incriminating in theft). And then the squad vouched for me. So send a letter to that husband if he has a slave. But I want to, having bought horses and put [on the horse] of the prince's husband, [go] to confrontations. And you, if you haven't taken that money [yet], don't take anything from him. "

Sometimes notes found by archaeologists contain extremely short and simple text, similar to the modern SMS message (No. 1073): “ From Gavrila to Kondrat. Come here"- and sometimes they look like announcements. For example, letter No. 876 contains a warning that renovations will take place on the square in the coming days.

Diploma No. 109. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

Love affairs

“From Mikita to Anna. Go for me - I want you, and you want me; but the witness is Ignat Moiseev. "

The most amazing thing about this note is that Mikita speaks directly to the bride herself, and not to her parents, as it should be. One has only to guess about the reasons for such an act. Another curious text has survived from the 12th century, in which a frustrated lady scolds her chosen one (No. 752):

“[I sent (?)] To you three times. What evil do you have against me that this week (or: this Sunday) you did not come to me? And I treated you like a brother! Did I hurt you by sending [to you]? And you, I see, do not like it. If you were in love, would you burst out from under [human] eyes and rush ...? Even if I hurt you out of my folly, if you start mocking me, then God and my badness (that is, me) will judge [you]. "

It turns out that in Ancient Russia, the relationship of the spouses was somewhat similar to modern families. For example, in letter # 931, Semyon's wife asks to suspend a certain conflict until her return. He will come and figure it out by herself:

“Order to Semyon from his wife. You would calm down [everyone] simply and wait for me. And I'll hit you with my forehead. "

Archaeologists also found fragments of a love conspiracy, possibly included in the draft of a love letter (No. 521): "So let your heart and your body and your soul [with passion] for me and for my body and my face flare up." And even a note from her sister to her brother, in which she says that her husband brought his mistress home, and they, drunk, beat her half to death. In the same note, the sister asks her brother to come as soon as possible and intercede for her.

Birch bark letter No. 497 (second half of the XIV century). Gavrila Postnya invites his son-in-law Grigory and sister Ulita to visit Novgorod.

Birch bark letters are the most important historical source.
Birch bark letters are generally very short and contain only the most important information, but it is very important for us, because from these letters we learn about the everyday life of medieval people. The information obtained from birch bark letters is very diverse: these are private letters, and business notes on collecting debts, and petitions from peasants, and various wills, receipts ... They also wrote prayers, lists of commemorations, jokes, riddles, school exercises on the birch bark. This variety of content suggests that the population of Ancient Rus was quite literate.

What is a birch bark letter

Birch bark literacy is a record on the bark of a birch. The letters found by archaeologists are monuments of the writing of Ancient Russia of the XI-XV centuries. Birch bark writing was known to many cultures of the peoples of the world, but birch bark letters of medieval Russia were first discovered in Veliky Novgorod. A purposeful search for these ancient values \u200b\u200bbegan only in the 20th century: in the 1930s, the Novgorod archaeological expedition began to work under the leadership of A.V. Artsikhovsky - he was the discoverer, first publisher and commentator of birch bark letters.

A.V. Artsikhovsky
Records on the bark of the birch bark were made with pointed metal or bone rods - writings that were repeatedly found by Artsikhovsky's expedition. Birch bark letter No. 1 was found on July 26, 1951 at the Nerevsky excavation site. In honor of this find, on July 26, Novgorod celebrates an annual holiday - "Day of the birch bark letter".

Birch bark letter number 1
Then birch bark letters began to be opened in other regions: in Smolensk (1952), Pskov (1958), Vitebsk (1959), Staraya Russa (1966), etc.
Scientists have established that birch bark as a material for writing began to be used in Russia no later than the first quarter of the 11th century. Its widespread use in this capacity ceased in the middle of the 15th century. due to the distribution of paper.
Birch bark was used mainly as material for private correspondence and personal records, and more important letters and official documents were usually written on parchment. Therefore, the birch bark letters discovered by archaeologists are, as a rule, discarded documents. Usually birch bark letters are found in the form of a rolled birch bark scroll with scratched text on inside bark, but sometimes on both sides. The text was written in a line, without division into words.

As we have already said, most of the birch bark letters are private letters, and therefore only separate fragments are often found, because they always try to hide private correspondence from prying eyes.
And here is a birch bark book with a record of prayers.

Birch bark letter number 419
Children's birch bark letters with riddles, school jokes, exercises, drawings are interesting. For example, educational notes and drawings of the Novgorod boy Onfim, discovered in 1956, are known. In total, 12 letters are written in Onfim's handwriting: No. 199-210 and 331. He also owns several birch-bark drawings without text.

Drawings of the boy Onfim, the author of several birch bark letters (mid-13th century)
Judging by the drawings, Onfim was 6-7 years old.
Onfim's notes contain exercises to consolidate the material covered, letters to another boy Danil, prayers, fragments from the Psalter, etc. Onfim's notes are a valuable evidence of primary education in Ancient Rus.

Drawing of Onfim

In moments of rest, Onfim painted. In his drawings - horses, warriors in helmets and cloaks, battle scenes, flying arrows, horsemen striking the enemy - everything that boys draw in our time.

What we learn from birch bark letters about the everyday life of the people of Ancient Russia

Birch bark letters testify to the wide spread of literacy in Ancient Russia, that the townspeople learned the alphabet from childhood and wrote their own letters. The women were also literate. The family correspondence of the Novgorodians testifies to the high position of the woman who sent her husband orders ("orders") and independently managed the money.
We also learn about how the ancient Novgorodians ate, what they wore, about their crafts, relationships with relatives, friends, about their hospitality, conflicts.
But love letter girls of the XI century. (letter № 752): “I sent to you three times. What evil do you have against me that you did not come to me? And I treated you like a brother! And you, I see, do not like it. If you were in love, then you would have escaped from under human eyes and come. Maybe I hurt you out of my folly, but if you start mocking me, then God judge you and I am unworthy. " Of course, it is not good to read other people's letters, but these letters were not stolen, they were not deceived by fraudulent means - they were simply thrown away.
Most of the birch bark documents from the territory of the Novgorod feudal republic (from Novgorod, Staraya Russa and Torzhok) are written in the Old Novgorod dialect. Other letters (from Smolensk, Zvenigorod Galitsky, Tver, Vitebsk, Moscow, Vologda) are written in the ancient dialect of these regions.
Birch bark letters are an important source in the study of the origin and development of the Russian Cyrillic alphabet. The alphabet (abesedarium) is presented on one of the oldest found birch bark letters - birch bark letter number 591 (XI century), discovered in 1981, and also on birch bark letter number 460 (XII century), found in 1969. Slavic alphabet (Glagolitic or Cyrillic) was called abeceedarium.
Several hundred birch bark letters have already been found. They are considered one of the most remarkable archaeological discoveries of the 20th century.
It is important that the birch bark letters are written in their native language. The Russian language was used everywhere: in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, literary works. The unity of the national and state language is a great cultural advantage of Russia over other European countries, in which the Latin state language prevailed. For this reason, such a wide literacy was impossible there as in Russia.
It was birch bark letters that confirmed the assumptions of historians that the real masters of Novgorod were not merchants, but feudal lords, who owned natural resources: land, rivers, forests. And here are the deciphered lines about the fugitive slave: “From Fedor to Xenia. If Matvey is caught, shackle him well, and manage to get the chains. Light up in the beer basement. Give it to Konstantin, let him keep watch until my arrival. "