All definitions by geography. Basic geographic terms and concepts. Global population problems

Lesson topic: Geography is the science of the earth.

Main goals and objectives: to form an understanding of what geography is doing in 5th grade students, to form an initial interest in this science and a desire to study it.

Lesson plan:

1. Definition of geography
2. Geography subsections
3. Where do geographers get their information from?

During the classes

1. Definition of geography

As already mentioned, geography is the science of the earth. She comprehensively studies our planet. Translated from Greek, the word "geography" means "description of the land." Yes, and this word consists of two simple Greek words: "ge" (which means Earth in translation) and "grapho" (which translates as I write).

The development of geography took place in parallel with the development of humanity. Remember, from the very beginning, people believed that the Earth stands on three elephants, which, in turn, were placed on a huge turtle? Then the description of the Earth was different. Ancient man, not having sufficient tools, described what he could see with the naked eye - forests and fields, rivers and lakes, people and their customs. Since it was proved that the Earth is a round planet, the methods of its study have changed dramatically. Modern geographers will never live without various artificial assistants, which allow them, first of all, to cover considerable distances (for example, vehicles with increased cross-country ability). In addition, they will need binoculars, rangefinders, but also microscopes.

Where does the study of geography begin for you, grade 5 students? Of course, this will be a common geography. You will learn about the peculiarities of the nature of your native land, study what features of the relief are present here, what plants grow and what animals live. Starting next year, you will go further - and now you will learn what a geographic envelope is, what it consists of, how it was formed. Surely you will be interested to know what the lithosphere or atmosphere is. Maybe you yourself can guess what the hydrosphere is for and what the biosphere includes. And you will also learn that humanity lives precisely in a geographic shell, and its influence on it is enormous.

So speaking about geography, we mean a complex of sciences that studies the geographic shell, within which the interaction between nature and the person living in society takes place.

2. Subdivisions of geography

Like any other science that studies phenomena in a complex and system, geography has several subsections, each of which deals with its own separate issues. In total, more than 80 interconnected sciences are known that relate to geography. The most famous and popular among them:

• Oceanology is a science that studies the processes that take place in the World Ocean.
• Demography - examines the population of the globe, its qualitative and quantitative composition. It is this science that says that 7.5 billion people currently live on Earth. Unfortunately, demography cannot answer the question of how much population our planet can sustain.
• Engineering geography - within the framework of this science, the soils on which various structures are erected are subject to study. Experts in these matters make sure that the constructed building, for example, does not slide into the sea due to unstable soils.
• Climatology - as the name suggests, and very easy, is the science of the planet's climate. The main question is whether the greenhouse effect exists or whether it was invented by evil scientists.
• Geology - explores the earth's crust, its structure and composition. What if there is a seismically hazardous zone in the place where the construction of the skyscraper is planned and the probability of earthquakes is high?
• Geomorphology - studies the relief of the earth's surface.
• Medical geography - important for it are the issues of the influence of various features of the territories on the health of those people who live there.
• Cartography is the science of making maps and reading them.

Like biology, the efforts of geography and scientists working in this field are aimed at preserving nature in its original form, as well as economically and carefully using the riches that it provides us.

All sciences working under the "auspices" of geography belong to one of two classes:

• Physical geography - they are devoted to the study of the surface of our planet.
• Socio-economic - in the focus of her attention is the variety of manifestations of the world in which people live, as well as the economic activity that they conduct.

Practical task:

Divide the geography subsections above between these two classes.

3. Where do geographers get their information from?

It is not very difficult to study geography at the initial stage - there are a lot of geographical maps, dictionaries, textbooks and encyclopedias that tell about geographical achievements of various ages. First of all, you need to learn how to read a geographical map - this skill can also have practical applications, for example, it will help you on a hike or travel.

In addition, watching TV and a computer with an Internet connection is more than welcome in this case - today many TV channels in the world (for example, the BBC) have their own programs on geography. Well, you shouldn't forget about books (first of all, textbooks) - they contain the quintessence of the knowledge that is now available to you.

Evaluation: Since there were few practical tasks within the lesson, students should be assessed by the final check of their level of mastering the material. You should ask a few of the questions listed in the Lesson Summary section to understand how the lesson was learned.

4. Lesson summary:

During the lesson, the students met:

• What is geography? What differences can you note in studying our planet in the past and in the present?
• What are the departments of geography and what does each of them do? What is physical and socio-economic geography?
• What is the source of information for studying geography?

Homework:

As part of a creative assignment, you can advise students:

• Supplement the list of subdivisions of geography - given in clause 3 is not final.
• Understand how theoretical research in the field of geography affects the practical activities of a person - for example, it helps in construction or medicine.
• Find one video on the Internet on geographic issues, watch it and retell in writing what was discussed there in your own words.

Geographic terms and concepts. Geographic definitions. Absolute height Is the vertical distance from sea level to a given point. points above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth - the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; is calculated in degrees from 0 to 360 ° clockwise.

Iceberg - a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or aground.
Antarctic belt - descends from the South Pole to 70 ° S latitude.
Anticyclone - the area of \u200b\u200bincreased air pressure in the atmosphere.

Area - the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
Arctic belt - descends from the North Pole to 70 ° N.
Archipelago - a group of islands.
Atmosphere - the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll - a coral island in the form of a ring.
Beam - a dry valley in the steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan - an accumulation of loose sand, blown by the wind and not fixed by vegetation.
Swimming pool - an area of \u200b\u200bdepression that has no runoff on the surface.
Coast - a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending to the water basin.
Biosphere - one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze - local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Day breeze. (or marine) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from land to sea.
"Brocken ghost" (on the Brocken mountain in the Harz massif, Germany) - a special kind of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind - air movement relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low pressure. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows. Wind speed is measured in m / s, km / h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity - the content of water vapor in it.
Watershed - boundary between drainage basins.
Elevation - an area raised above the surrounding terrain.
Waves - oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands - a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, peaked peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights of more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems of the planet: the Himalayas, Everest peak (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, in India and China - Karakorum, Chogori peak (8611 m).
Altitudinal zonality - the change of natural zones in the mountains from the bottom to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates - angular quantities that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and the prime meridian.
Geospheres - Earth shells, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere - the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain - 1) an isolated sharp rise in a relatively flat area; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
The mountains - vast territories with absolute heights up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their limits.
Mountain system - a set of mountain ranges and mountain ranges stretching in one direction and having a common appearance.
Ridge - an elongated, relatively low relief form; formed by hills, lined up in a row and merged at their feet.
Delta - the area of \u200b\u200bdeposition of river sediments at the mouth of the river when it flows into the sea or lake.
Geographic longitude - the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through the given point and the plane of the initial meridian; measured in degrees and measured from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley - negative linearly elongated landform.
Dunes - the accumulation of sands on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
The bay - a part of the ocean (sea or lake), which juts out quite deep into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
The Earth's crust is the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell - slight, with a calm, uniform wave, sea, river or lake disturbance.
Ionosphere - high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source - the place where the river begins.
Canyon - a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the submarine margin of the continent.
Karst - dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomenon associated with it. Climate is a long-term weather regime in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or belt) - a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe - sandy or pebble rampart, stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater - a depression formed after the explosion of the volcano.
Ridge - a sharply uplifting large uplift, one of the types of uplands.
Avalanche - a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon - a shallow bay or bay, separated from the sea by an oblique or coral reef.
Geographic landscape - type of terrain, a relatively homogeneous area of \u200b\u200bthe geographic envelope.
Glacier - a mass of ice slowly moving under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total ice volume is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the total ice volume of the planet.
glacial period - a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
Forest-steppe - a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest tundra - a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Lyman - shallow bay at the river mouth; usually separated from the sea by an oblique or in-fill.
Lithosphere - one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle - the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and the core.
Mainland - a large part of the land, surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia - in the Southern Hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific Oceans (the smallest of the continents);
America North and South - in the Western Hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica - in the central part of the South Polar Region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);
Africa - in the Southern Hemisphere (the second largest continent);
Eurasia - in the Northern Hemisphere (the largest continent of the Earth).
Meridians geographicallye - imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographic longitude.
World Ocean - all water space of the Earth.
Monsoons are winds that periodically change their direction depending on the season: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands - a mountainous country characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet - in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highlands on Earth. Its base rests at absolute heights of 3500-5000 m and more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Low mountains - the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland - a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazonian Lowland with an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake - a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Baikal.
Oceans - parts of the World Ocean, separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic is the smallest and shallowest ocean; Pacific Ocean (Great), the greatest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide - displacement down the slope of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island - a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The world's largest island Greenland with an area of \u200b\u200b2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographic parallels - imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
the greenhouse effect (atmospheric greenhouse effect) - protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds - constant winds in tropical areas blowing towards the equator.
Plateau - 1) high plain, bounded by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain peak.
Underwater plateau - elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos- deep (wide) section of the river bed between rifts.
Plateau - a vast area of \u200b\u200bland with a height of 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m and more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain - part of the river valley, which is flooded during high water.
Semi-desert - a transitional landscape that combines features of the steppe or desert.
Earthly hemisphere - half of the earth's sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160 ° E. and 20 ° W. (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or on other grounds.
Geographic poles - points of intersection of the axis of rotation of the Earth with the earth's surface. Magnetic points of the Earth are points on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where the magnetic compass is inapplicable for orientation by the cardinal points.
Polar circles (North and South) - parallels 66 ° 33 ′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold - a shallow area in the riverbed with a steep slope and fast current.
Foothills - hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairie - vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebb and flow - periodic fluctuations in the water level of the seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts - vast areas with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains - vast flat or slightly hilly areas of land. The largest on Earth is East European, or Russian, with an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 6 million km2 and West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of \u200b\u200babout 3 million km2.
River - a constant stream of water flowing in the channel. The Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in terms of basin area (7180 μ2) and in water content Mississippi is the largest river in the North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief - a set of various irregularities of the earth's surface of various origins; are formed under a combination of endogenous and exogenous processes impact on the earth's surface.
Bed - the deepened part of the bottom of the valley occupied by the river.
Savannah - a landscape of the tropics and subtropics, in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or their groups.
North Pole - the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.
Mud - mud or mud-stone flow, suddenly passing through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado (American name tornado) - vortex air movement in the form of a funnel or column.
Middle mountains - mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and north-east of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indochina peninsula; in the north of Africa and the East African plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope - an inclined area on land or the seabed. Windward slope - facing towards where prevailing winds blow. Leeward Slope - facing away from the prevailing winds.
Steppe - treeless areas with an arid climate, which are characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch almost in a continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeastern China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining in the south with the savannahs of the tropical belt.
Stratosphere - the layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical belts (subtropics) - located between the tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts - located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga - zone of temperate coniferous forests. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America with an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon - the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takir - flat depression in the desert, covered with hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements - movements of the earth's crust, changing its structure and shape.
Tropics - 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe spaced 23 ° 30 ° north and south of the equator: the tropics of Capricorn (northern tropic) - the tropics of the northern hemisphere and the tropics of Cancer (southern tropic) - the tropics of the southern hemisphere; 2) natural belts.
Tropical belts - located between the subtropical and subequatorial belts.
Troposphere - the lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra - treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Moderate belts - located in temperate latitudes.
Moderate latitudes - located between 40 ° and 65 ° N. and between 42e and 58 ° S latitude.
Hurricane - a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m / s.
Estuary - the place where the river flows into the sea, lake or other river.
Front atmospheric - the zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord) - a narrow deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill - a small in height and gently sloping hill.
Cyclones - an area of \u200b\u200blow atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami - Japanese name for huge waves that occur as a result of underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world- regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf - continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographic - the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and measured from the equator to the north and south.
Squall - a sharp short-term increase in wind before the storm.
Calm - calm, calm.
Storm - very strong wind, accompanied by strong sea waves.
Equator - an imaginary line connecting points on the globe that are equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere - the layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere - an area of \u200b\u200bouter space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion - destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole - the point of intersection of the Earth's axis with the Earth's surface in the Southern Hemisphere.
Core of the earth - the central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave - a part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and not having access to the sea.
Agglomeration urban - a group of closely located cities, united by close labor, cultural, household, infrastructural ties into a complex system.
Trade balance - the difference between goods exported from the country (export of the country) and imported (import).
Population reproduction - a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural growth, which ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographic environment - a part of terrestrial nature, with which society interacts at this stage of historical development.
Geopolitics - dependence of the foreign policy of the state on geographic location and other physical and economic and geographical factors.
Global population problems - a set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all mankind, posing a threat to its present and future; joint efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Demographic policy - a system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences the natural population growth in the direction it desires.
Demographic revolution - the transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography - a spider about population, the laws of its reproduction.
Population growth is natural - the difference between the values \u200b\u200bof birth and death rates per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration - entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import - import of goods into the country from other states.
Industrialization - the creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from an agricultural to an industrial one.
Integration international economic - the process of establishing deep and stable economic relations between countries, based on their pursuit of an agreed interstate policy.
Intensive development path - an increase in production volumes due to additional investment in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure - a set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and ensuring the daily life of the population.
Conversion - transfer of military production to civilian production.
Megalopolis (metropolis) - the largest form of settlement, resulting from the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Interindustry complex - a group of industries producing homogeneous products or having close technological ties.
Population migration - movement of the population across the territory associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy - interaction of people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity - the level of costs for research and development in the total cost of production.
Scientific and technological revolution (STR) - a radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation - a historical and social community of people, which is formed in a certain territory in the process of the development of social market relations of an industrial type and interdistrict (international) division of labor.
Industry - a set of enterprises producing homogeneous products or providing homogeneous services.
Socio-economic district - the territory of the country, which includes several administrative units, which differs from others in the features of historical development, geographic location, natural and labor resources, specialization of the economy.
Zoning - division of the territory into regions according to a number of signs.
Regional policy - a complex of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and equalization of people's living standards.
Resource availability - the ratio between the amount of natural resources and the amount of their use.
Free economic zone - a territory with a favorable EGP, where, in order to attract foreign capital, a preferential tax and customs regime, special pricing conditions are established.
Production specialization - production by enterprises of individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products, performance of one or several technological operations.
Territory specialization - concentration in the area of \u200b\u200bproduction of certain products or certain saw services
The structure of the national economy - the ratio between various spheres and industries in terms of the cost of production, the number of employees or the cost of fixed assets.
Suburbanization - the process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to the outflow of the population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor - specialization of certain regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Labor resources - a part of the country's population capable of working and having the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization - the process of urban growth and the spread of the urban way of life to the entire network of settlements.
Service - labor aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.
Economic and geographical location (EGP) - the position of the object in relation to other geographic objects of economic importance for it.
Economically active population - a part of the country's population, a comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.
Export - export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path - increase in production volumes due to the quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration - departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long time.
Power system - a group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos - a historically established stable community of people with a unique internal structure and an original stereotype of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the "native" landscape.

Geography is one of the oldest sciences in the world. Even primitive people studied their area, drew the first primitive maps on the walls of their caves. Of course, the modern science of geography poses completely different tasks. Which ones? What is she studying? And what definition can be given to this science?

Determination of geography: main problems and difficulties

If physics teaches "how", history explains "when" and "why", then geography tells "where." Of course, this is a very simplified view of the subject.

Geography is a very old science. The term itself has ancient Greek roots and is literally translated as "land description". And its foundation was laid precisely in antiquity. The first scientist-geographer is called Claudius Ptolemy, who in the second century published a book with an unambiguous title: "Geography". The work consisted of eight volumes.

Among other scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of geography as a science, it is worth highlighting Gerhard Mercator, Alexander Humboldt, Karl Ritter, Walter Kristalller, Vladimir Vernadsky,

The exact and uniform definition of geography is still a rather difficult task. According to one of several interpretations, the sciences that study various aspects of the functioning and structure of geography. There is another definition of geography, according to which this science studies the laws of the spread of any phenomenon on the earth's surface. But professor V.P. Budanov wrote that although the content of geography is very difficult to determine, but its object is undoubtedly the surface of the entire globe.

Geography as a science of the geographic shell of the Earth

Nevertheless, the main object of study is the geographic shell of the Earth. Domestic science gives the following definition of this term. is an integral and continuous shell of the planet Earth, which consists of five structural parts:

• lithosphere;
• hydrospheres;
• atmosphere;
• biosphere;
• anthroposphere.

Moreover, they are all in close and constant interaction, exchanging matter, energy and information.

The geographic envelope has its own parameters (thickness - about 25-27 kilometers), and also has certain patterns. These include integrity (unity of components and structures), rhythm (periodic recurrence of natural phenomena), latitudinal zoning, and altitudinal zonality.

The structure of geographical science

The distinction between the natural and the bold line passed through the "body" of the once united geographical science, scattering its individual disciplines into completely different planes of scientific research. Thus, some physical and geographic branches are more closely related to physics or chemistry than to population or economics.

Geography of the Earth is divided into two broad disciplines.

1. Physical.
2. Social and economic.

The first group includes hydrography, climatology, geomorphology, glaciology, soil geography, and others. It is not hard to guess that they are studying natural objects. The second group includes population, urban studies (the science of cities), regional studies, and others.

Links with other sciences

How closely related is geography to other sciences? What place does it occupy in the system of scientific disciplines?

Geography has the closest ties with such sciences as mathematics, history, physics and chemistry, economics, biology and psychology. Like any other discipline, it is also genetically related to philosophy and logic.

It is worth noting that some of these cross-scientific connections were so strong that they spawned entirely new so-called cross-cutting disciplines. These include the following:

• cartography (geography + geometry);
• toponymy (geography + linguistics);
• historical geography (geography + history);
• soil science (geography + chemistry).

The main geographic problems at the present stage of the development of science

Oddly enough it sounds, but one of the most important geographical problems is the definition of geography as a science. Moreover, methodologists and theorists are so carried away by the solution of this problem that the question has already arisen, is there such a science at all?

In the 21st century, the role of the predictive function of geographical science has increased. Various geomodels (climatic, geopolitical, ecological, etc.) are built with the help of a huge amount of analytical and factual data.

The main task of geography at the present stage is not only to realize the deep connections between natural phenomena and social processes, but also to learn to predict them. One of the most important branches of science today is geo-urban studies. The world's urban population is growing every year. The world's largest cities are facing new challenges and challenges that require immediate and constructive solutions.

Race is a historically developed group of people with common physical characteristics: skin color, eyes and hair, eye shape, eyelid structure, head shape, and others. Previously, the division of races into "black" (negroes), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans) was accepted, but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.

The simplest modern division is not too different from the "color" one. According to her, there are 3 main or large races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.

Curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, a weakly protruding wide nose, and thickened lips are characteristic of Negroids.

Caucasians usually have wavy or straight hair, relatively light skin, varying eye colors, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow, protruding nose with a high nose, and usually thin or medium lips.

Mongoloids have straight, coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, a narrow eye shape, a flattened face with strongly prominent cheekbones, a narrow or medium-wide nose with a low nose, moderately thickened lips.

In the extended classification, it is customary to distinguish several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) is the indigenous population of the American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians as a branch of the Mongoloids.

Australoids (Australian-Oceanic race) - the indigenous population of Australia. An ancient race with a huge range, limited by regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kuril Islands. The features of the appearance of indigenous Australians - a large nose, beard, long wavy hair, a massive brow, powerful jaws sharply distinguish them from Negroids.

Currently, there are few pure representatives of their races. Basically, mestizos live on our planet - the result of mixing different races, which may have signs of different racial groups.

Time zones are conventionally defined parts of the Earth in which the same local time is accepted.

Before the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local solar time, depending on the geographical longitude. However, this was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train timetables. The modern time zone system first appeared in North America in the late 19th century. In Russia, it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was accepted throughout the world.

For greater convenience (so as not to enter the local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conditionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are determined not by meridians, but by administrative units (states, cities, regions). This is also done for convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the values \u200b\u200bof minutes and seconds (time) are usually saved, only in some countries, the local time differs from the universal time by 30 or 45 minutes.

Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London is taken as the starting point (prime meridian or belt). At the North and South Poles, the meridians converge at one point, so they usually do not adhere to time zones. Time at the poles is usually equated with universal time, although at polar stations it is sometimes led in its own way.

GMT -12 - Date change meridian

GMT -11 - about. Midway, Samoa

GMT -10 - Hawaii

GMT -9 - Alaska

GMT -8 - Pacific Time (US & Canada), Tijuana

GMT -7 - Mountain Time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Matsatlan)

GMT -6 - Central Time (USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)

GMT -5 - Eastern Time (US & Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogota, Lima, Quito)

GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)

GMT -3 - South American Eastern Time (Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland

GMT -2 - Mid-Atlantic Time

GMT -1 - Azores, Cape Verde

GMT - Greenwich Time (Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia

GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time

GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kiev, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa

GMT +3 - Moscow Time, Eastern African Time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia

GMT +4 - Samara Time, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia

GMT +5 - Yekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)

GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk Time, Central Asian Time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka

GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk Time, Southeast Asia (Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)

GMT +8 - Irkutsk Time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian Time (Perth)

GMT +9 - Yakutsk Time, Korea, Japan

GMT +10 - Vladivostok Time, Eastern Australian Time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific Time (Guam, Port Moresby)

GMT +11 - Magadan Time, Central Pacific Time (Solomon Islands, New Caledonia)

GMT +12 - Wellington

The wind rose is a diagram that depicts the mode of change in the directions and speeds of the wind in a certain place, over a certain period of time. It got its name thanks to a pattern similar to a rose. The first wind roses were known before our era.

It is assumed that sailors invented the wind rose, who tried to identify the patterns of changes in the winds, depending on the season. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.

The diagram is constructed as follows: on the rays coming from the common center in different directions, the value of the repeatability (in percentage) or wind speed is plotted. The rays correspond to the cardinal points: north, west, east, south, north-east, north-north-east, etc. Currently, the wind rose is usually built according to long-term data for the month, season, year.

Clouds are classified using Latin words to define the appearance of clouds as seen from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus clouds, stratus - stratus clouds, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - rain clouds.

In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually, several groups of clouds are distinguished, the first three of which are determined by their height above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds of mixed types.

High clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar latitudes above 3 km, in tropical latitudes above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they are composed mostly of ice crystals. The upper clouds are usually thin and white. The most common forms of top clouds are cirrus and cirrostratus, which can usually be seen in fair weather.

Middle clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km in polar and 2-8 km in tropical. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common type of middle clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shaded parts, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually occurs as a result of air convection, as well as the gradual rise of air ahead of a cold front.

Lower cloudsare located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is high enough, therefore, they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common low cloud types are nimbostratus (nimbostratus) and stratocumulus (stratocumulus), dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.

Vertical development clouds - cumulus clouds, in the form of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. They arise as a result of thermal convection and can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus and cumulonimbus (cumulonimbus). Good weather clouds look like cotton wool. Their lifetime is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young good weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while older clouds are jagged and blurred.

Other types of clouds: contrails (condensation trails), billow clouds (wavy clouds), mammatus (umester cloud), orographic (obstacle clouds) and pileus (cloud cap).

Precipitation is water in a liquid or solid state that falls out of clouds or is deposited from the air on the Earth's surface (dew, frost). There are two main types of precipitation: overburden precipitation (occurs mainly when a warm front passes) and heavy rainfall (associated with cold fronts). The amount of precipitation is measured by the thickness of the water layer that has fallen over a certain period (usually mm / year). On average, precipitation on Earth is about 1000 mm / year. The amount of precipitation less than this value is called insufficient, and more - excessive.

Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the action of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of the oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then water vapor gradually rises, where, under the influence of low temperatures, it condenses (gas is converted into a liquid state) and freezing. This is how clouds form. As the mass of liquid in the cloud builds up, it also becomes heavier. Upon reaching a certain mass, moisture from the cloud spills onto the ground in the form of rain.

If precipitation falls in an area with a low temperature, then moisture droplets freeze on the way to the ground, turning into snow. Sometimes they seem to stick together, causing the snow to fall in large flakes. This happens most often at not very low temperatures and strong winds. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has managed to freeze, snow can persist as a cover for up to several months. In some especially cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, and in warm (tropics, equator) there is no snow at all.

When frozen water particles move within the cloud, they grow and thicken. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail forms. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the surface temperature is high. The sizes of hailstones can be different: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.

Sometimes moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs right on the surface of the earth. This usually happens when the temperature drops at night. In the summertime, moisture can be observed on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. In the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.

Soils are classified by type. The first scientist to classify soils was Dokuchaev. The following types of soils are found on the territory of the Russian Federation: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, arctic soils, permafrost taiga, gray and brown forest soils, and chestnut soils.

Tundra gley soils are found on the plains. Formed without much influence on them by vegetation. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (In the Northern Hemisphere). Gley soils are often places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. Chukotka can serve as an example of tundra soils in Russia, and in the world it is Alaska in the USA. On the territory with such soils, people are engaged in agriculture. This land grows potatoes, vegetables and various herbs. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils in agriculture, the following types of work are used: drainage of the most moisture-saturated lands and irrigation of arid regions. Also, the methods of improving the fertility of these soils include the introduction of organic and mineral fertilizers into them.

Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. Such soil is rather thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil is not restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common on the territory of Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands in the Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and a small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.

Podzolic soils are common in forests. The soil contains only 1-4% humus. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. A reaction with acid takes place. That is why this type of soil is also called sour. Dokuchaev was the first to describe podzolic soils. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and the Far East. In the world there are podzolic soils in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils in agriculture must be properly processed. They must be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers applied to them. Such soils are more useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow on them better than agricultural crops. Sod-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. In composition, they are in many ways similar to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be washed out more slowly with water, in contrast to podzolic soils. Sod-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% of the fertile layer on the surface, and at the depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.

Permafrost taiga soils were formed in forests, in permafrost conditions. They are found only in a continental climate. The deepest depths of these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by the proximity to the permafrost surface. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountain permafrost taiga soils. They form in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are found in Eastern Siberia. They are found in the Far East. More often mountain permafrost-taiga soils are found near small water bodies. Outside Russia, there are such soils in Canada and Alaska.

Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. A prerequisite for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forests and grassy vegetation. Places of formation contain an element necessary for such a soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are gray in color. The humus content in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, the soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils prevail in Russia from Transbaikalia to the Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on the soil.

Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils exist only in temperate warm climates. The color of the soil is brown. Usually brown soils look like this: on the surface of the earth there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20, and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a layer of clay of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. The subtypes vary with temperatures. Allocate: typical, podzolized, gley (surface gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are common in the Far East and at the foothills of the Caucasus. On these soils, unpretentious crops are grown, for example, tea, grapes and tobacco. The forest grows well on such soils.

Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. That says the average soil fertility. This soil has a chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut color. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, farming is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. The following crops grow well on dark chestnut soils without irrigation: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in soil and chemical composition of chestnut soil. Its division into clayey, sandy, sandy loam, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of chestnut soil is varied. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is supported by the annually falling grass and leaves of rare trees in the steppe. You can get good yields on it, provided there is a lot of moisture. After all, the steppes are usually arid. Chestnut soils in Russia are common in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.

There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. They all differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the brink of a crisis. Russian soils must be valued as the land on which we live. Care for the soil: fertilize it and prevent erosion (destruction).

Biosphere - a set of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is inhabited by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a certain position, like other shells, but is located within them. Thus, aquatic animals and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the earth are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.

The composition of living organisms includes about 60 chemical elements, the main of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions. Spores of some plants can withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200 ° C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250 ° C. The inhabitants of the depths of the sea withstand tremendous water pressure, which would instantly crush a person.

Living organisms mean not only animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living things. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the overwhelming part of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful store of solar energy. This is due to plant photosynthesis. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet takes place.

According to experts, life on Earth originated about 3.5 billion years ago in the oceans. This age was assigned to the oldest found organic remains. Since the age of our planet, scientists determine in the region of 4.6 billion years, we can say that living things appeared at an early stage in the development of the Earth. The biosphere has the greatest impact on the rest of the Earth's shell, although not always beneficial. Inside the shell, living organisms also actively interact with each other.

The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its gravity and rotates with the planet. The physical state of the atmosphere is determined by the climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are the composition, density, pressure and temperature of the air. Air density and atmospheric pressure decrease with height. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Transitional regions are located between these layers, which are called tropopause, stratopause, and so on.

The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to an altitude of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the entire mass of the atmosphere and almost all water vapor. The air density is greatest here. With a rise for every 100 m, the temperature in the troposphere decreases by an average of 0.65 °. The upper layer of the troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.

The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here the temperature rises with altitude. On the border with the troposphere, it reaches about -56ºС, and to an altitude of about 50 km it rises to 0ºС. The area between the stratosphere and the mesosphere is called the stratopause. In the stratosphere is the "ozone layer", which defines the upper limit of the biosphere. The ozone layer is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. The complex chemical processes taking place in this shell are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, the northern lights). About 20% of the mass of the atmosphere is concentrated here.

The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the next thermosphere is the mesopause.

The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises rather quickly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.

The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is almost devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near-space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.

The hydrosphere is the watery shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and land surface waters. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of water volume is taken by groundwater, the third is ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is close to 1.39 billion km³.

Water, along with oxygen, is one of the most important substances on earth. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a human being is approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in shaping the topography of the Earth's surface, transporting chemicals in the depths of the Earth and on its surface.

The water vapor in the atmosphere acts as a powerful filter for solar radiation and a climate regulator.

The main volume of water on the planet is the salt water of the World Ocean. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salt). The highest salinity in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this indicator is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of oceanic waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known us chemical elements, only in different proportions. The chemical composition of fresher groundwater is more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.

The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of waters from one species to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in the water that life originated on our planet.

Volumes of water in the hydrosphere:

Sea and ocean waters - 1370 million km³ (94% of the total)

Groundwater - 61 million km³ (4%)

Ice and snow - 24 million km³ (2%)

Land reservoirs (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) - 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)

The lithosphere is the hard shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land on average ranges from 35-40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains, the thickness of the earth's crust is even greater: for example, under the Himalayas, its thickness reaches 90 km. The earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is the thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas of the Pacific Ocean - up to 5 km.

The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and entering the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and the atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues today, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.

Most of the lithosphere is made up of crystalline substances that were formed during the cooling of magma - molten matter in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions were formed. Passing along the cracks in the earth's crust, they cooled down and released the substances contained in them. Since some minerals decompose with changes in temperature and pressure, on the surface they are transformed into new substances.

The lithosphere is affected by the Earth's air and water envelopes (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is reflected in the weathering processes. Physical weathering is a mechanical process, as a result of which the rock is crushed to smaller particles without changing the chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The rate of weathering is also influenced by the biosphere, as well as the topography of the land and climate, water composition and other factors.

As a result of weathering, loose continental sediments have formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. Soils were formed on these deposits, which play an important role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth's crust.

Orientation on the ground includes determining its location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent objects of the terrain (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement to a specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when being in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.

You can navigate by the map, by the compass, by the stars. Various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin can also serve as landmarks.

When orienting on the map, it is necessary to link the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to a river bank or road, and then rotate the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map coincides with the direction of the line on the ground. Items located to the right and left of the line should be located on the terrain on the same sides as on the map.

Orientation of the map by compass is used mainly on terrain that is difficult for orientation (in the forest, in the desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the direction to the north is determined by the compass, and the map is positioned with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that the vertical line of the map's coordinate grid coincides with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass. Remember that compass readings can be affected by metal objects, power lines, and electronic devices in the immediate vicinity.

After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance, after passing which you need to change the direction of travel. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, after finding it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.

In the absence of a compass, the cardinal points can be determined as follows:

The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;

On coniferous trees, resin is more commonly found on the south side;

Annual rings on fresh stumps on the north side are closer to each other;

On the north side, trees, stones, stumps, etc. earlier and more abundantly covered with lichens, fungi;

Anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, the northern one is steep;

In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;

Separate trees have a lush and thicker crown on the south side;

Altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran pickaxes are facing east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;

The raised end of the lower crossbar of the cross of the churches faces north.

A geographic map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and condition of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is depicted on the cards, they are called political, physical, etc.

Maps are classified according to various criteria:

By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (finer than 1: 1,000,000). The scale determines the relationship between the real size of the object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), it is possible, using simple calculations and special measuring tools (ruler, curvimeter), to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.

In terms of content, maps are subdivided into general geographic and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physical and geographical maps are used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.

According to the coverage of the territory, geographical maps are divided into world maps, maps of continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, regions, etc.).

According to their purpose, geographical maps are divided into reference, educational, navigation, etc.

DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS

Like any academic discipline, geography has many terms, concepts, specific expressions, phrases, without which it is impossible to evaluate the essence of the material presented by geographers.

Every civilized person needs a dictionary of place names. It contains information about numerous countries, lost corners of the planet, peoples inhabiting the Earth, etc.

The dictionary contains terms and concepts that reveal the meaning of words that are often found not only in geography lessons and extracurricular activities, but also in the everyday life of students.

Geographic concepts and terms are grouped into sections for basic courses in physical and economic geography.

The publication is addressed to students of secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges. Can also be used by teachers, parents, educators. The Geographical Dictionary is an excellent universal reference for applicants in preparation for the entrance exams.

The dictionary includes the terms and concepts necessary for the successful passing of exams both in the traditional form (translated), and in preparation for the OGE and USE.

The initial documents for compiling the dictionary were geography textbooks for grades 5-9, corresponding to the educational-methodological complex of the line of textbooks published by the Drofa publishing house, edited by V.P. Dronov, as well as the textbook "Geography of the Samara Region". Authors V.V. Voronin, V.A. Gavrilenkova. A guide for students in grades 8-9 of secondary school. Samara: GOU SIPKRO, 2010

Physiography

Absolute height

- the vertical distance from sea level to this point. Those located above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.

Azimuth

- the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; is calculated in degrees from 0 to 360 ° clockwise.

Iceberg

- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or aground.

Antarctic belt

- descends from the South Pole to 70 ° S latitude.

Anticyclone

- the area of \u200b\u200bincreased air pressure in the atmosphere. Areal - the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.

Arctic belt

- descends from the North Pole to 70 ° N.

Archipelago

- a group of islands.

Atmosphere

- the air shell of the Earth.

Atoll

- a coral island in the form of a ring.

Beam

- a dry valley in the steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.

Barkhan

- an accumulation of loose sand, blown by the wind and not fixed by vegetation.

Swimming pool

- an area of \u200b\u200bdepression that does not have a runoff on the surface.

Coast

- a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending to the water basin.

Biosphere

- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.

Breeze

- local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Daytime B. (or marine) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night B. (or coastal) - from land to sea.

“Brocken ghost "

(on the Brocken mountain in the Harz massif, Germany) - a special kind of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.

Wind

- air movement relative to the ground, usually horizontal, directed from high pressure to low pressure. V.'s direction is determined by the side of the horizon, from where it leaves. The air velocity is determined in m / s, km / h, knots, or approximately on the Beaufort scale. Air humidity is the content of water vapor in it.

Watershed

- boundary between drainage basins.
Upland - an area raised above the surrounding terrain.

Waves

- oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the moon and the sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).

Highlands

- a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, peaked peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights of more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems of the planet: the Himalayas, Everest peak (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, in India and China - Karakorum, Chogori peak (8611 m).

Altitudinal zonality

- the change of natural zones in the mountains from the bottom to the top, associated with climate and soil changes, depending on the height above sea level.

Geographical coordinates

- angular quantities that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and the prime meridian.

Geospheres

- shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.

Hydrosphere

- the water shell of the Earth.

Mountain

1) an isolated sharp rise in a relatively flat area; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.

The mountains

- vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their limits.

Mountain system

- a set of mountain ranges and mountain ranges stretching in the same direction and having a common appearance.

Ridge

- an elongated, relatively low relief form; formed by hills, lined up in a row, merged at their feet.

Delta

- the area of \u200b\u200bdeposition of river sediments at the mouth of the river when it flows into the sea or lake.

Geographic longitude

- the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through the given point and the plane of the initial meridian; measured in degrees and measured from the prime meridian to the east and west.

Valley

- negative linearly elongated landform.

Dunes

- the accumulation of sands on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.

The bay

- a part of the ocean (sea or lake), which juts out quite deep into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.

Earth's crust

- the upper shell of the Earth.

Swell

- slight, with a calm, uniform wave, sea, river or lake disturbance.

Ionosphere

- high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.

Source

- the place where the river begins.

Canyon

- a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. submarine - a deep valley within the submarine margin of the continent.
Karst is the dissolution of rocks by natural waters and a phenomenon associated with it. Climate is a long-term weather regime in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small territory.

Climatic zone (or belt)

- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.

Scythe

- sandy or pebble rampart, stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a promontory far into the sea.

Crater

- a depression formed after the explosion of the volcano.

Ridge

- a sharply uplifting large uplift, one of the types of uplands.

Avalanche

- a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.

Lagoon

- a shallow bay or bay, separated from the sea by an oblique or coral reef.

Geographic landscape

- a relatively homogeneous area of \u200b\u200bthe geographic envelope.

Glacier

- a mass of ice slowly moving under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or along a valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total ice volume is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.

glacial period

- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.

Forest-steppe

- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.

Forest tundra

- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.

Lyman

- shallow bay at the river mouth; usually separated from the sea by an oblique or in-fill.

Lithosphere

- one of the shells of the Earth.

Mantle

- the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and the core.

Mainland

- a large part of the land, surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.

Australia

- in Yuzh. hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents); North. and South America - in West. hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;

Antarctica

- in the central part of Yuzh. the polar region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet); Africa - in the South. hemispheres (the second largest continent);

Eurasia

- all in. hemisphere (the largest continent of the Earth).

Geographic meridians

- imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at a right angle; all their points lie at the same geographic longitude.

World Ocean

- all water space of the Earth.

Monsoons

- winds that periodically change their direction depending on the season: in winter, sushi blow to the sea, and in summer from the sea to land.

Highlands

Is a mountainous country characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet - in Central Asia, the highest and greatest plateau on Earth, its foundation rests at absolute heights of 3500-5000 m and more. Individual peaks rise up to 7000 m.

Low mountains

- the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from the north to the south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500m.
Lowland - a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous primordial among them is the Amazonian lowland with an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 5 million km2 in the South. America.

Lake

- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest one is Baikal.

Oceans

- parts of the World Ocean, separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic is the smallest and shallowest ocean; Pacific Ocean (Great), the greatest and deepest ocean on Earth.

Landslide

- displacement down the slope of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.

Island

- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world is Greenland with an area of \u200b\u200b2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height - the vertical distance between the top of the mountain and its foot.

Geographic parallels

- imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.

Greenhouse effect (atmospheric greenhouse effect)

- protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.

Trade winds

- constant winds in tropical areas blowing towards the equator.

Plateau

1) high plain, bounded by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain peak. Submarine submarine is an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.

Plyos

- a deep section of the river bed between rifts.

Plateau

- a vast area of \u200b\u200bland with a height of 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m and more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.

Floodplain

- part of the river valley, which is flooded during floods.

Semi-desert

- a transitional landscape that combines features of the steppe or desert.

Earthly hemisphere

- half of the earth's sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160 ° E. and 20 ° W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or by other signs.
Geographic poles are the points of intersection of the Earth's axis of rotation with the earth's surface. Earth's magnetic points are points on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle is located on the vertical, i.e. where the magnetic compass is inapplicable for orientation by the cardinal points.

Polar Circles (North and South)

- parallels located at 66 ° 33 ′ north and south of the equator.

Threshold

- a shallow area in the riverbed with a steep slope and fast current.

Foothills

- hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.

Prairie

- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.

Ebb and flow

- periodic fluctuations in the water level of the seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.

Deserts

- vast areas with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.

Plains

- vast flat or slightly hilly areas of land. The largest on Earth is East European, or Russian, with an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 6 million km2 and West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of \u200b\u200babout 3 million km2.

River

- a constant stream of water flowing in the channel. The Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (from the source of the Ucayali River more than 7000 km), in terms of basin area (7180 μ2) and in water content; Mississippi is the largest river North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).

Relief

- a set of various irregularities of the earth's surface (forms of R.) of various origins; they are formed with a set of impacts on the earth's surface of endogenous and exogenous processes.

Bed

- the deepened part of the bottom of the valley, occupied by the river.

Savannah

- a landscape of the tropics and subtropics, in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or their groups.
The North Pole is the point of intersection of the Earth's axis with the Earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.

Mud

- mud or mud-stone flow, suddenly passing through the valley of a mountain river.

Tornado (American name for tornado)

- vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.

Middle mountains

- mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and north-east of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indo-China peninsula, in the north of Africa and the East African plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.

Slope

- an inclined area on land or the seabed. Windward S. - facing the direction from which prevailing winds blow. Leeward S. - facing in the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.

Steppe

- treeless areas with an arid climate, which are characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch almost as a continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeastern China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining in the south with the savannahs of the tropical belt.

Stratosphere

- the layer of the atmosphere.

Subtropical zones (subtropics)

- located between tropical and temperate zones.

Subequatorial belts

- located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.

Taiga

- zone of temperate coniferous forests. Taiga almost continuous belt covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America.

Typhoon

- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.

Takir

- flat depression in the desert, covered with hardened clay crust.

Tectonic movements

- movements of the earth's crust, changing its structure and shape.

Tropics

1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, spaced 23 ° 30 ° north and south of the equator: tropics of Capricorn (North. T.) - tropics of North. hemispheres and tropics of Cancer (South t.) - tropics hemispheres; 2) natural belts.

Tropical belts

- located between the subtropical and subequatorial belts.

Troposphere

- the lower layer of the atmosphere.

Tundra

- treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.

Moderate belts

- located in temperate latitudes.

Moderate latitudes

- located between 40 ° and 65 ° N. and between 42e and 58 ° S latitude.

Hurricane

- a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m / s.

Estuary

- the place where the river flows into the sea, lake or other river.

Front atmospheric

- the zone separating warm and cold air masses.

Fiord (fjord)

- a narrow deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.

Hill

- a small in height and gently sloping hill.

Cyclones

- an area of \u200b\u200blow atmospheric pressure.

Tsunami

- Japanese name for huge waves that occur as a result of underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Parts of the world

- regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.

Shelf

- continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).

Latitude geographic

- the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and measured from the equator to the north and south.

Squall

- a sharp short-term increase in wind before the storm.

Calm

- calm, calm.

Storm

- very strong wind, accompanied by strong sea waves.

Equator

- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe that are equidistant from the poles.

Exosphere

- the layer of the atmosphere.

Ecosphere

- an area of \u200b\u200bouter space suitable for the existence of living organisms.

Erosion

- destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.

South Pole

- the point of intersection of the Earth's axis with the Earth's surface in South. hemispheres.

Core of the earth

- the central part of the planet with a radius of approx. 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave

A part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and not having an outlet to the sea.

Agglomeration urban

A group of nearby cities, united by close labor, cultural, household, and infrastructural ties into a complex system.

Trade balance

Difference between goods exported from the country (export of the country) and imported (import).

Population reproduction

The totality of the processes of fertility, mortality and natural growth, which ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.

Geographic environment

A part of earthly nature with which society interacts at this stage of historical development.

Geopolitics

The dependence of the foreign policy of the state on the geographical location and other physical, economic and geographical factors.

Global population problems

A set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all mankind, posing a threat to its present and future; joint efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.

Demographic policy

The system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures, with the help of which the state influences the natural population growth in the direction it desires.

Demographic revolution

The transition from one type of population reproduction to another.

Demography

Spider about population, the laws of its reproduction.

Population growth is natural

Difference between birth and death rates per 1000 inhabitants per year.

Immigration

Entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.

Import

Import of goods into the country from other states.

Industrialization

Creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, transformation of the country from an agricultural into an industrial one.

Integration international economic

The process of establishing deep and stable economic relations between countries, based on their pursuit of an agreed interstate policy.

Intensive development path

Increase in production volumes due to additional capital investments in existing production facilities.

Infrastructure

A set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and ensuring the daily life of the population.

Conversion

Transfer of military production to civilian production.

Megalopolis

The largest form of settlement, resulting from the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.

Interindustry complex

A group of industries producing homogeneous products or having close technological connections.

Population migration

Movement of the population across the territory associated with a change of place of residence.

National economy

The interaction of people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.

Science intensity

The level of research and development costs in the total cost of production.

Scientific and technological revolution (STR)

A radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.

Nation

Historical and social community of people, formed on a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of an industrial type and interdistrict (international) division of labor.

Special economic zone

A territory with a favorable EGP, where, in order to attract foreign capital, a preferential tax and customs regime is established, and special conditions for pricing.

Industry

A set of enterprises producing homogeneous products or providing homogeneous services.

Socio-economic district

The territory of the country, which includes several units of the ADS, which differs from others in its historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, and the specialization of the economy.

Zoning

Division of the territory into districts according to a number of signs.

Regional policy

A complex of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and leveling the living standards of people.

Resource availability

The relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use.

Production specialization

Production of individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products by enterprises, performance of one or several technological operations.

Territory specialization

Concentration in the area of \u200b\u200bproduction of certain products or certain saw services

The structure of the national economy

The ratio between various spheres and industries in terms of the cost of production, the number of employees, or the cost of fixed assets.

Suburbanization

The process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to the outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.

Territorial division of labor

Specialization of certain regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.

Labor resources

Part of the country's population capable of working and possessing the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.

Urbanization

The process of urban growth and the spread of the urban way of life to the entire network of settlements.

Service

Labor aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.

Economic and geographical location (EGP)

The position of the object in relation to other geographic objects of economic importance to it.

Economically active population

Part of the country's population, comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.

Export

Export of goods to other countries.

Extensive development path

Increase in production volumes due to the quantitative growth of production units.

Emigration

Departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long period.

Power system

A group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.

Ethnos

A historically established stable community of people with a unique internal structure and an original stereotype of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the "native" landscape.