It is called geographical. Geography definitions "geographic concepts". Wind-Driven Currents

Agglomeration (from Latin agglomero - I attach, pile up) is a compact spatial grouping of several cities, united by close ties.

Agro-industrial complex (agro-industrial complex, agro-industrial complex) - branches of the national economy involved in the production of agricultural products, their processing and storage, as well as providing agriculture with the means of production.

Administrative-territorial division (from the Latin administrate - management, leadership) is a system of territorial organization of the state, on the basis of which bodies of state power and administration are formed and function. In Russia, the main administrative-territorial units are republics, territories, regions and autonomous okrugs, which, in turn, consist of districts and cities.

Water area - a section of the water surface: the whole body of water or its part. For example, the water area of \u200b\u200bthe sea, the bay.

An enclave (from Lat. Clavis - key) is a part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of another.

Assimilation (from Latin assimilatio - fusion) is the fusion of one people with another, accompanied by the loss of language, culture, etc.

Melons are a group of plants of the pumpkin family (watermelon, melon, pumpkin). The border of industrial melon growing in Russia is 45-50 * s. sh. Water capacity - specific water consumption per unit of manufactured products. The military-industrial complex (military-industrial complex) is a system of defense industry enterprises that produce military equipment, weapons and ammunition. The military-industrial complex includes research organizations, design bureaus, testing laboratories, and manufacturing enterprises.

Hydropower is the mechanical energy of a water stream that can be converted into electrical energy by means of hydraulic turbines that drive electrical generators.

Freight turnover is the main indicator of transport performance. It is calculated as the product of the amount of cargo transported (W) and the distance of transportation (in km). The palace and park ensemble is a combination of monumental buildings and small architectural forms (gazebos, fountains, etc.) with nature.

Pollution is the introduction into the environment or the appearance in it of new, usually unusual substances and compounds, or the excess of the natural concentration level of these substances and compounds. It arises as a result of anthropogenic influences (that is, human activities).

Inversion (from Latin inversio - overturning, rearrangement) - an increase in air temperature with height.

Investments (from Lat. Investio - I dress) - long-term investments in industry, transport, agriculture, as well as non-production areas: medicine, education, science in order to make a profit. Innovation (from Latin innovatio - renewal) is an innovation: everything new that is being introduced in the economy, in everyday life: new technologies, new forms of labor organization and management, new tools, household items, ways of spending free time, etc.

Concentration of production - the process of concentration of production at large and largest enterprises.

Timber industry complex (LPK) is a territorial combination of harvesting, mechanical processing and chemical processing of wood.

Material consumption - the specific consumption of raw materials and materials per unit of manufactured products.

An intermountain basin is an intermontane depression, a tectonic depression in the mountains, stretching for tens, sometimes hundreds of kilometers, with a width from several kilometers to several tens of kilometers, surrounded on all or almost all sides by high ridges.

Navigation (from Lat. Navigatio - I sail on a ship) - 1) navigation, shipping; 2) a period of time in a year when, due to natural conditions, navigation is possible in a given ocean, sea, lake, reservoir, river.

Research and Production Association (NPO) is one of the forms of combining science with production. The structure includes research, design, design organizations, pilot production facilities and serial production plants.

Opolye - high, treeless, slightly undulating, well-drained plains; their fertile soils are usually plowed up. Found in the south of the taiga and in the zone of mixed and deciduous forests of the East European Plain.

Remote pasture animal husbandry is a system of keeping animals, in which they are kept on remote natural pastures for several months, and sometimes even the whole year.
Passenger turnover is an indicator of transport performance. It is calculated as the product of the number of passengers and the distance of transportation (in km).

The productivity of farm animals is one of the indicators of the efficiency of animal husbandry: the amount of meat, wool, milk, etc., obtained on average from one animal per unit of time.

Radioactive contamination - the ingress of radioactive isotopes into the environment (hydrosphere, atmosphere, soil) and living organisms. It occurs as a result of nuclear explosions, disposal of radioactive waste into the environment, and the development of radioactive ores.
Cost of production - the current costs of production, expressed in monetary terms.

Agricultural land - land resources used in agriculture.

Silage is a succulent forage obtained by fermenting (ensiling) the green mass of plants. Silage preserves the plant mass, which allows for a long time to preserve the beneficial properties of succulent feed.
Stable animal husbandry - keeping livestock mainly indoors (in a stall).

Place names (from the Greek topos - place and onyma - name) are local geographical names. The science that studies the origin, semantic meaning, change in pronunciation and spelling of toponyms is called toponymy.

Labor intensity of production - an economic indicator that characterizes the cost of working time for the production of a unit of output or for the performance of a certain work

The shelf zone (from the English shelf - continental shelf) is a shallow part (up to 200 m deep) of the underwater margin of continents and islands, which has a relatively flat surface and slight slopes. The shelf zone is the most important place for fishing for seafood, a source of various minerals, the most important of which are oil, gas, ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Energy intensity - specific power consumption per unit of output.

Lesson topic: Geography is the science of the earth.

Main goals and objectives: to form an understanding of what geography is doing in 5th grade students, to form an initial interest in this science and a desire to study it.

Lesson plan:

1. Definition of geography
2. Geography subsections
3. Where do geographers get their information from?

During the classes

1. Definition of geography

As already mentioned, geography is the science of the earth. She comprehensively studies our planet. Translated from Greek, the word "geography" means "description of the land." Yes, and this word consists of two simple Greek words: "ge" (which means Earth in translation) and "grapho" (which translates as I write).

The development of geography took place in parallel with the development of humanity. Remember, from the very beginning, people believed that the Earth stands on three elephants, which, in turn, were placed on a huge turtle? Then the description of the Earth was different. Ancient man, not having sufficient tools, described what he could see with the naked eye - forests and fields, rivers and lakes, people and their customs. Since it was proved that the Earth is a round planet, the methods of its study have changed dramatically. Modern geographers will never live without various artificial assistants, which allow them, first of all, to cover considerable distances (for example, vehicles with increased cross-country ability). In addition, they will need binoculars, rangefinders, but also microscopes.

Where does the study of geography begin for you, grade 5 students? Of course, this will be a common geography. You will learn about the peculiarities of the nature of your native land, study what features of the relief are present here, what plants grow and what animals live. Starting next year, you will go further - and now you will learn what a geographic envelope is, what it consists of, how it was formed. Surely you will be interested to know what the lithosphere or atmosphere is. Maybe you yourself can guess what the hydrosphere is for and what the biosphere includes. And you will also learn that humanity lives precisely in a geographic shell, and its influence on it is enormous.

So speaking about geography, we mean a complex of sciences that studies the geographic shell, within which the interaction between nature and the person living in society takes place.

2. Subdivisions of geography

Like any other science that studies phenomena in a complex and system, geography has several subsections, each of which deals with its own separate issues. In total, more than 80 interconnected sciences are known that relate to geography. The most famous and popular among them:

• Oceanology is a science that studies the processes that take place in the World Ocean.
• Demography - examines the population of the globe, its qualitative and quantitative composition. It is this science that says that 7.5 billion people currently live on Earth. Unfortunately, demography cannot answer the question of how much population our planet can sustain.
• Engineering geography - within the framework of this science, the soils on which various structures are erected are subject to study. Experts in these matters make sure that the constructed building, for example, does not slide into the sea due to unstable soils.
• Climatology - as the name suggests, and very easy, is the science of the planet's climate. The main question is whether the greenhouse effect exists or whether it was invented by evil scientists.
• Geology - explores the earth's crust, its structure and composition. What if there is a seismically hazardous zone in the place where the construction of the skyscraper is planned and the probability of earthquakes is high?
• Geomorphology - studies the relief of the earth's surface.
• Medical geography - important for it are the issues of the influence of various features of the territories on the health of those people who live there.
• Cartography is the science of making maps and reading them.

Like biology, the efforts of geography and scientists working in this field are aimed at preserving nature in its original form, as well as economically and carefully using the riches that it provides us.

All sciences working under the "auspices" of geography belong to one of two classes:

• Physical geography - they are devoted to the study of the surface of our planet.
• Socio-economic - in the focus of her attention is the variety of manifestations of the world in which people live, as well as the economic activity that they conduct.

Practical task:

Divide the geography subsections above between these two classes.

3. Where do geographers get their information from?

It is not very difficult to study geography at the initial stage - there are a lot of geographical maps, dictionaries, textbooks and encyclopedias that tell about geographical achievements of various ages. First of all, you need to learn how to read a geographical map - this skill can also have practical applications, for example, it will help you on a hike or travel.

In addition, watching TV and a computer with an Internet connection is more than welcome in this case - today many TV channels in the world (for example, the BBC) have their own programs on geography. Well, you shouldn't forget about books (first of all, textbooks) - they contain the quintessence of the knowledge that is now available to you.

Evaluation: Since there were few practical tasks within the lesson, students should be assessed by the final check of their level of mastering the material. You should ask a few of the questions listed in the Lesson Summary section to understand how the lesson was learned.

4. Lesson summary:

During the lesson, the students met:

• What is geography? What differences can you note in studying our planet in the past and in the present?
• What are the departments of geography and what does each of them do? What is physical and socio-economic geography?
• What is the source of information for studying geography?

Homework:

As part of a creative assignment, you can advise students:

• Supplement the list of subdivisions of geography - given in clause 3 is not final.
• Understand how theoretical research in the field of geography affects the practical activities of a person - for example, it helps in construction or medicine.
• Find one video on the Internet on geographic issues, watch it and retell in writing what was discussed there in your own words.

Geographic concepts

Absolute height- the vertical distance from sea level to this point.A.V. points above sea level is considered positive,below - negative.

Azimuth - the angle between the direction to the north andtargeting any subjecton the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360 ° in the direction of movement of the hourarrows.

Iceberg - large block of ice floating in the sea, lake, or aground

Antarctic belt- descends from the South Pole to 70 ° S latitude.Anticyclone - the area of \u200b\u200bincreased air pressure inatmosphere. Area - the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.

Arctic belt- descends from the North Pole to 70 ° N.Archipelago - group of islands.

Atmosphere - the air shell of the Earth.

Atoll - a coral island in the form of a ring.

Beam - dry valley in the steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.

Dune - an accumulation of loose sand, blown by the wind and not fixed by vegetation.

Swimming pool - an area of \u200b\u200bdepression that has no runoff on the surface.Coast - a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending to the water basin.

Biosphere - one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.Breeze - local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers.Day B. (or marine) blows from the sea (lake) to land.Night B. (or coastal) - from land to sea.

"Brocken Ghost"(on the Brocken mountain in the Harz massif, Germany)- a special kind of mirage observed in clouds or fog whensunrise or sunset.

Wind - air movement relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low pressure.Direction B. is determined by the side of the horizon, whence he blows. Speed \u200b\u200bB. is defined in m / s, km / h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.

Air humidity- the content of water vapor in it.

Watershed - drainage basin boundary.Elevation - an area raised above the surrounding terrain.

Waves - oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seasand oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun(tidal V.),by the wind (wind V.), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure(anemobaric V.),underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).

Highlands - a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, peaked peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights over 3000m. The highest mountain systems of the planet:Himalayas, summit Everest (8848 m) located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China -Karakorum, Chogori peak (8611 m).

Altitudinal zonality- the change of natural zones in the mountains from the bottom to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.

Geographical coordinates- angular quantities that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and the prime meridian.

Geospheres - Earth shells, differing in density and composition.Hydrosphere - the water shell of the Earth.

Mountain: 1) an isolated sharp rise in a relatively flat area; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.

The mountains - vast territories with absolute heights up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their limits.

Mountain system - a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in the same direction and have a common appearance.

Ridge - an elongated, relatively low relief form; formed by hills linedin row and merged at their feet.

Delta - the area of \u200b\u200bdeposition of river sediments at the mouth of the river when it flows into the sea or lake.

Geographic longitude- the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through the given point and the plane of the initial meridian; measured in degrees and measured from the prime meridian to the east and west.

Valley - negative laneously elongated landform.

Dunes - the accumulation of sands on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.

The bay - part of the ocean (seaor lakes), which juts out quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.

Earth's crust - the upper shell of the Earth.

Swell - slight, with a calm, uniform wave, sea, river or lake disturbance.

Ionosphere - high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.

Source - the place where the river begins.

Canyon - a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom.K. underwater - a deep valley within the submarine edge of the mainland.

Karst - dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomenon associated with it.

Climate - long-term weather regime in a particular area.Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.Climatic zone(or belt) - a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.

Scythe - sandy or pebble rampart, stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.

Crater - a depression formed after the explosion of the volcano.

The ridge is a sharply uplifting large uplift, one of the types of uplands.

Avalanche - a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.Lagoon - a shallow bay or bay, separated from the sea by an oblique or coral reef.

Geographic landscape- a relatively homogeneous area of \u200b\u200bthe geographic envelope.

Glacier - a mass of ice slowly moving under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2 , the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total ice volume is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.

glacial period- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.Forest-steppe - a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.Forest tundra - a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.

Lyman - shallow bay at the river mouth; usually separated from the sea by an oblique or in-fill.

Lithosphere - one of the shells of the Earth.

Mantle - the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and the core.

Mainland - a large part of the land, surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.Australia - in Yuzh. hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents);North. and Yuzh. America- in Zap. hemisphere, between the Pacific and Antlatic oceans;Antarctica - in the central part of Yuzh. the polar region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);Africa - in Yuzh. hemispheres (the second largest continent);Eurasia - all in. hemisphere (the largest continent of the Earth).

Geographic meridians- imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographic longitude.

World Ocean - all water space of the Earth.

Monsoons - winds that periodically change their direction depending on the season: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.

Highlands - a mountainous country characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet is in Central Asia, the highest and greatest plateau on Earth. Its base rests at absolute heights of 3500-5000 m and more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.

Low mountains - the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m.The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan, the vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m ...

Lowland - a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazon Lowland with an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 5 million km2 in South. America.

Lake - a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Baikal.

Oceans - parts of the World Ocean, separated from each other by continents and islands.Atlantic; Indian- ocean of heated waters;Arctic- the smallest and shallowest ocean;Pacific Ocean (Great)the greatest and deepest ocean on earth.

Landslide - displacement down the slope of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.

Island - a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world -Greenland an area of \u200b\u200b2 million 176 thousand km2 .

Relative altitude- the vertical distance between the top of the mountain and its foot,

Geographic parallels- imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.

the greenhouse effect(atmospheric greenhouse effect) - protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.

Trade winds - constant winds in tropical areas blowing towards the equator.

Plateau: 1) high plain, bounded by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain peak.P. underwater - elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.

Plyos - a deep section of the river bed between rifts.

Plateau - a vast area of \u200b\u200bland with a height of 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m and more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example:East African, Central Siberian, Vitimplateau.

Floodplain - part of the river valley, which is flooded during high water.Semi-desert - a transitional landscape that combines features of the steppe or desert.

Earthly hemisphere- half of the earth's sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160 ° E. and 20 ° W. (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or on other grounds.

Geographic poles- points of intersection of the axis of rotation of the Earth with the earth's surface.

Magnetic p. Earth- points on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where the magnetic compass is inapplicable for orientation by the cardinal points.

Polar Circles (North and South) - parallels located 66 ° 33 "north and south of the equator.

Threshold - a shallow area in the riverbed with a steep slope and fast current.

Foothills - hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.

Prairie - vast grassy steppes in the North. America.

Ebb and flow- periodic fluctuations in the water level of the seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.

Deserts - vast areas with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe -Sahara in North. Africa,

Plains - vast flat or slightly hilly areas of land. Largest on EarthEastern European,or Russian, with an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 6 million km2 and Zapodno-Siberianin the north of Eurasia, with an area of \u200b\u200babout 3 million km2 .

River - a constant stream of water flowing in the channel.Amazon - river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in terms of basin area (7180 micronsr ) and by water content;Mississippi - the largest river North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km);Nile - a river in Africa (length 6671 km).

Relief - a set of various irregularities of the earth's surface (forms of R.) of various origins; are formed under a combination of endogenous and exogenous processes impact on the earth's surface.

Bed - the deepened part of the bottom of the valley occupied by the river.

Savannah - a landscape of the tropics and subtropics, in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or their groups.

North Pole - the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.

Mud - mud or mud-stone flow, suddenly passing through the valley of a mountain river.

Tornado (American name for tornado) - vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.

Midlands - mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and north-east of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indochina peninsula; in the north of Africa and the East African plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.

Slope - an inclined area on land or the seabed.Windward S. - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow.Leeward S. - facing away from the direction of the prevailing winds.

Steppe - treeless areas with an arid climate, which are characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch almost as a continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeastern China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining in the south with the savannahs of the tropical belt.

Stratosphere - the layer of the atmosphere.

Subtropical belts(subtropics) - located between the tropical and temperate zones.

Subequatorial belts- located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.

Taiga - zone of temperate coniferous forests. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America with an almost continuous belt.

Typhoon - the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.

Takir - flat depression in the desert, covered with hardened clay crust.

Tectonic movements- movements of the earth's crust, changing its structure and shape.

Tropics: 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, spaced 23 ° 30 ° north and south of the equator:tropics of Capricorn (N. t.)- North tropics. hemispheres andtropics of Cancer (South t.)- the tropics of the South. hemispheres; 2) natural belts.

Tropical belts- located between the subtropical and subequatorial belts.

Troposphere - the lower layer of the atmosphere.

Tundra - treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.

Moderate belts - located in temperate latitudes.

Moderate latitudes- located between 40 ° and 65 ° N. and between 42 ° and 58 ° S lat.Hurricane - a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m / s.

Estuary - the place where the river flows into the sea, lake or other river.

Front atmospheric- the zone separating warm and cold air masses.

Fiord (fjord) - a narrow deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.

Hill - a small in height and gently sloping hill.Cyclones - an area of \u200b\u200blow atmospheric pressure.

Tsunami - Japanese name for huge waves that occur as a result of underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Parts of the world - regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.

Shelf - continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).

Latitude geographic- the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and measured from the equator to the north and south.

Squall - a sharp short-term increase in wind before the storm.

Calm - calm, calm.

Storm - very strong wind, accompanied by strong sea waves.

Equator - an imaginary line connecting points on the globe that are equidistant from the poles.

Exosphere - the layer of the atmosphere.

Ecosphere - an area of \u200b\u200bouter space suitable for the existence of living organisms.

Erosion, destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.

South Pole, the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the South. hemispheres.

The core of the earth the central part of the planet with a radius of approx. 3470 km.

Typical plans for the description of geographic objects

The geographical position of the mainland

1. The location of the continent relative to the equator, the tropics (polar circles) and the prime meridian.

2. The extreme points of the mainland, their coordinates and the length of the mainland in degrees and kilometers from north to south and from west to east.

3. In what climatic zones is the mainland located?

4. Oceans and seas washing the mainland.

5. Location of the mainland relative to other continents.

Terrain relief

1. What is the general nature of the surface? How can it be explained?

2. How are the landforms located in the study area?

3. What are the highest and prevailing heights?

Climate

1. In what climatic zone and in what region is the territory located?

2. Average temperatures in July and January. The direction and reasons for their change.

3. Prevailing winds (seasons).

4. Annual amount of precipitation and their regime. Reasons for the difference in rainfall.

River

1. In which part of the mainland flows?

2. Where does it originate? Where does it flow?

3. In which direction does it flow?

4. Explain the dependence of the nature of the current on the relief.

5. Determine the sources of the river supply.

6. What is the river regime and how does it depend on the climate?

Natural area

1. Geographic location of the zone.

2. Geology, tectonics, relief.

3. Climate.

4. Internal waters.

5. Soils.

6. Vegetation.

7. Animal world.

Population of the country

1. Size, type of population reproduction, demographic policy.

2. Age and sex composition of the population, labor force availability.

3. National (ethnic) composition of the population.

4. Social and class composition of the population.

5. The main features of the distribution of the population, the impact of migration on its distribution.

6. Levels, rates and forms of urbanization, major cities and urban agglomerations.

7. Rural settlement.

8. General conclusion. Population growth prospects and labor supply.

EGP of the country (region)

1. Position in relation to neighboring countries.

2. Position in relation to the main land and sea transport routes.

3. Position in relation to the main fuel and raw material bases, industrial and agricultural regions.

4. Location in relation to the main marketing areas.

5. Change in EGP over time.

6. General conclusion about the influence of EGP on the development and location of the country's economy.

Industry

1. The importance of the industry and the size of its products.

2. Natural prerequisites for the development of the industry.

3. Industry structure.

4. The main factors influencing the location of the industry, and the main features of its geography; sectoral industrial areas.

5. Dependence of the industry on exports and imports.

6. General conclusion. Industry development prospects.

Agriculture of the country

1. The importance of the industry and the size of the products.

2. Natural conditions for the development of the industry.

3. Features of agricultural relations.

4. The structure of the industry, the ratio of crop and livestock production.

5. Geography of crop and livestock production, agricultural areas.

6. Dependence of the country on the export and import of agricultural products.

7. General conclusion. Prospects for population growth and labor resources.

Territory of the economic region

1. EGP of the region.

2. Natural conditions, resources of the region and their economic assessment.

3. Labor resources and opportunities for their use.

4. Historical preconditions for the development of the national economy of the economic region.

5. Specialization of the economy (industry and agriculture).

6. Interrelationships of industries and territories within the region, forms of production location (TPK, nodes, centers).

7. Cities.

8. Prospects for the development of the region.

Absolute height- the height of any point on the earth's surface above ocean level.

Azimuth -the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to the item.

Icebergs, ice mountains - large fragments of continental glaciers that float in the ocean.

Artesian waters- pressure interstratal waters.

Archipelago - a group of islands in the ocean or sea, which have the same origin and are located close to each other.

Atoll - a ring-shaped coral island with a shallow basin located inside it.

River basin, river basin- the territory from which the river collects water.

Endless lakes -lakes without river flow. Rivers do not originate from such lakes.

Inland seas - seas that cut deeply into the land; connected to the ocean or adjacent sea straits.

Waterfall- a fall of water from a ledge created in the river bed.

Watershed - border between river basins.

Reservoirs -artificial lakes on rivers created by the construction of a dam.

Sushi water - these are the waters of rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and waters in the upper part of the earth's crust. They are subdivided into surface and underground.

Hills - flat areas of land, which are located at absolute heights from 200 to 500 m.

Depressions - closed areas of land located below sea level.

Volcanism - a set of processes associated with the introduction of magma into the earth's crust or its release to the earth's surface.

Volcanic lakes, crater lakes - lakes in the craters of volcanoes.

Volcanoes- mountains that are formed when magma and other volcanic products rise from the bowels of the Earth and erupt on its surface.

Weathering- mechanical and chemical change of rocks on the earth's surface or near it under the influence of fluctuations in temperature, air, water and organisms. It can be physical, chemical and biological.

Geyser- periodically gushing hot spring.

Geographic longitude - distance in degrees from the prime meridian to the west or east to a given point. There are western and eastern ones.

Geographic map- reduced, generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane using conventional symbols.

Geographic latitude - distance in degrees from the equator to the north or south to a point. It happens north and south.

Geographic poles - the points of intersection of the imaginary earth's axis with the surface of the globe.

Geography - the science of the natural conditions of the earth's surface (physical geography), the population of the Earth and its economic activities (economic geography).

Hydrosphere - the water shell of the Earth. Its main components are the oceans and land waters.

Deep sea troughs- long narrow depressions of the ocean floor with depths of over 6000 m.

Horizontal lines - lines on the map that connect points with the same absolute height.

Mountain country, mountains - a vast area of \u200b\u200bthe earth's surface, which is raised above sea level above 500 m and is characterized by significant and sharp fluctuations in altitude at relatively short distances. Low, medium and high mountains are distinguished by absolute height.

Mountain glaciers- glaciers in the mountains; have a varied shape.

Rocks - natural mineral formations of which the earth's crust is composed. They are magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Mountain rivers - rivers of mountainous countries with narrow rocky valleys and fast currents.

Degree grid - a grid of parallels and meridians on the globe and map.

Ground water - groundwater of the first permanent aquifer from the surface, which is not overlapped from above by a continuous watertight layer.

Delta - the mouth of the river in the form of a triangle. Usually forms in shallow areas of the sea or lake at the confluence of a river that carries a large amount of sediment.

Valley mountain glaciers - glaciers in the mountains, shaped as ice streams moving downward from the feeding areas along the mountain valleys.

Volcano mouth - the channel through which magma erupts to the surface of the Earth.

Environmental pollution - changes in the properties of the environment as a result of anthropogenic (man-made) intake of various substances.

The bay - a part of the ocean or sea, protruding into the land, but having a free exchange of water with the rest of the water space and slightly differing from it in natural conditions.

Dam lakes, platinum lakes - lakes that have arisen as a result of overlap, dams, obstruction of the valley by a mountain avalanche, lava flow, glacier or its sediments.

Earthquakes - sharp tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface.

Earth's crust - the upper hard stone shell of the Earth.

Isobaths - lines on the map that connect points of the same depths of the bottom of oceans, seas and lakes.

Artificial lakes - lakes created by man (ponds, reservoirs).

Source of the river - the place where the river begins.

Source, spring, key - natural outlet to the earth's surface of groundwater.

Karst- a set of processes associated with the dissolution of rocks by surface and underground waters.

Karst lakes - lakes formed as a result of limestone, gypsum, dolomite dissolution by water.

Oscillatory movements of the earth's crust - slow rise and fall of the earth's crust.

Crater- a bowl-shaped depression at the top of a volcano or on its slope, through which volcanic products (magma, gases, etc.) erupt.

Lava- magma that spilled onto the earth's surface.

Map legend - a set of symbols used on the map with explanations.

Glacier- natural accumulation of ice on the earth's surface, which has independent movement.

Glacial lakes - lakes formed by glaciers.

Lithosphere –The upper shell of the Earth, covering the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle.

Ocean bed - the actual oceanic bottom with the earth's crust of the oceanic type.

Magma - a molten mass of fire, which is saturated with water vapor and gases. Formed in the bowels of the Earth.

Mantle of the Earth -the earth's shell, located between the earth's crust and the Earth's core.

Scale - the ratio of the length of a line in a drawing, plan or map to the length of the corresponding line on the ground.

Continents, continents - large areas of land, surrounded on all or almost all sides by oceans and seas.

Continental shelf, shelf - underwater shallow water plain to a depth of 200 meters.

Continental slope - part of the bottom of the World Ocean, located between the shelf and the ocean floor at a depth of 200 to 2500-3000 m.

Low water - the period with the lowest stable water level in the river. It happens in summer and winter.

Interstratal waters - groundwater, which occurs between water-resistant strata.

Meridians - lines on the globe and maps, conventionally drawn on the surface of the Earth and connecting the poles.

World Ocean - all water space of the globe outside the land.

Monitoring - observation and control over the state of the natural environment, its individual components and their change by man.

Sea - a part of the ocean, isolated by land and underwater uplifts from the rest of the ocean water space and having its own natural conditions.

Moraine- hard clastic material transported and deposited by the glacier.

Sea currents, ocean currents- horizontal movement of water masses in the oceans and seas in the form of huge streams that move along certain paths.

Flood - water flooding of the area located in the river valley above the floodplain.

Highlands - a large part of the mountainous country in area, which includes both mountain ranges and areas of plateaus.

Lowland - a plain with an absolute height of up to 200 m.

Ravines - deep ruts (ditches) with steep slopes formed by temporary water flows - storm and melt water.

Lake- a natural closed depression of land filled with water. They differ in the origin of the lake basins, flow and salinity.

Oceans - large parts of the World Ocean, separated by continents.

Marginal seas - seas that cut shallowly into the land, are widely connected with the ocean and separated from it by islands, peninsulas and underwater uplifts.

Landslides - shifts, downward sliding of rock masses on steep slopes under the influence of gravity.

Orienteering - determination of its position in relation to the sides of the horizon and local objects.

Islands - small, in comparison with continents, land areas, surrounded on all sides by water. They are of mainland, volcanic and coral origin.

Elevation and depth marks - figures on maps and terrain plans showing the absolute heights of land and the depths of oceans, seas, lakes.

Relative height -the excess of one point on the earth's surface over another.

Flood - fast, but short-term rise in the water level in the river.

Parallels- lines conventionally drawn on the Earth's surface parallel to the equator.

Rolls - shallow sections of the river bed.

Isthmus - a relatively narrow strip of land in the water area. Connects different parts of the land.

Rivers feeding - water inflow into rivers. Distinguish between rain, glacial, underground and mixed river feeding.

Site plan - a reduced conventional image of a small area of \u200b\u200bthe earth's surface in the drawing, made at a certain scale.

Plyosy - deeper parts of the river bed between shallower ones.

Highlands -a large flat land area with an absolute height of over 500 m.

Surface water - waters carried by streams and rivers, concentrated in lakes, reservoirs, swamps and glaciers.

Submarine outskirts of continents - part of the ocean floor, which includes the continental shelf and slope.

The groundwater - water in pores, voids and cracks of rocks in the upper part of the earth's crust (up to a depth of 12-16 km).

Floodplain - the lowered part of the river valley, flooded with water during floods.

Cover glaciers, continental glaciers - glaciers in the form of domes or shields covering the land surface, regardless of the relief.

Mineral resources, mineral resources - natural mineral formations in the earth's crust, which are mined and used by humans.

High water- high and prolonged rise in the water level in the river, accompanied by flooding of the floodplain.

Polynyas- non-freezing sections of the river in winter.

Peninsula - a piece of land, jutting into the body of water, surrounded on three sides by water.

Thresholds - shallow rocky or rocky areas in the river bed with a fast flow. Formed as a result of the release of solid rocks.

Fresh lakes - lakes, the content of dissolved salts in which is less than 1 g per liter of water.

Ebb and flow - periodic rises and falls in the water level in the oceans and seas. Called by the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun.

Strait - a relatively narrow body of water separating land areas and connecting separate parts of the World Ocean.

Pond- a small artificial lake in the valley of a river, ravine, ravine and in other depressions of the relief, which was formed by building a dam or digging a pit.

Plains- large areas of land and ocean floor with relatively small fluctuations in relative heights. By the nature of the surface, they are flat and hilly, in terms of absolute height they are represented by lowlands, hills and plateaus.

Flat rivers - rivers of the plain with wide river valleys and smooth, calm flow.

River mode - the change in the state of the river over time (change in water level, flow speed, water temperature, etc.). Usually there are high water, low water, floods.

River - a natural water stream that constantly flows in the same place.

Land reclamation - restoration of lands disturbed by human economic activity.

Relief - a set of unevenness of the earth's surface.

River valley - a longitudinally elongated depression from the source to the mouth, created or modified by the river.

River system - the river with its tributaries.

River plains - plains formed by river sediments.

Riverbed - a deepening in the river valley, through which the waters of the river flow.

Snow border (line) - the absolute height above which the snowfall exceeds its melting. Snow accumulates and turns into ice. At the snow border, snow falls as much as it can melt.

Salinity of water - the total amount of all salts in grams contained in 1 liter. Or 1 kg of water.

Salt lakes, mineral lakes - lakes with a content of more than 24 g of dissolved substances in a liter of water.

Brackish lakes - lakes in which the content of dissolved salts is from 1 to 24 g per liter of water.

Mid ocean ridges - powerful mountain structures at the bottom of the World Ocean with volcanism and earthquakes.

Old women - lakes in old riverbeds, usually crescent-shaped.

Waste lakes - lakes with river flow. The rivers originate from them.

Tectonic lakes - lakes formed as a result of movements of the earth's crust, its sinking along cracks or troughs.

Waste heap is a cone-shaped waste rock dump near mine workings (for example, coal mines).

River mouth - the place where the river flows into another river, lake or sea.

Gorge - a narrow and deep mountain valley with steep slopes.

Tsunami - large sea waves that arise as a result of powerful underwater earthquakes, sometimes - underwater volcanic eruptions.

Parts of the world - continents or parts thereof and located near the island.

The scale of heights and depths -a color scale on physical maps and globes used to determine heights and depths.

Equator -a line on the globe and maps, conventionally drawn on the surface of the globe at the same distance from the geographic poles.

Core of the earth - the central part of the Earth, located below the mantle.

Race is a historically developed group of people with common physical characteristics: skin color, eyes and hair, eye shape, eyelid structure, head shape, and others. Previously, the division of races into "black" (negroes), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans) was accepted, but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.

The simplest modern division is not too different from the "color" one. According to her, there are 3 main or large races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.

Curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, a weakly protruding wide nose, and thickened lips are characteristic of Negroids.

Caucasians usually have wavy or straight hair, relatively light skin, varying eye colors, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow, protruding nose with a high nose, and usually thin or medium lips.

Mongoloids have straight, coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, a narrow eye shape, a flattened face with strongly prominent cheekbones, a narrow or medium-wide nose with a low nose, moderately thickened lips.

In the extended classification, it is customary to distinguish several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) is the indigenous population of the American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians as a branch of the Mongoloids.

Australoids (Australian-Oceanic race) - the indigenous population of Australia. An ancient race with a huge range, limited by regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kuril Islands. The features of the appearance of indigenous Australians - a large nose, beard, long wavy hair, a massive brow, powerful jaws sharply distinguish them from Negroids.

Currently, there are few pure representatives of their races. Basically, mestizos live on our planet - the result of mixing different races, which may have signs of different racial groups.

Time zones are conventionally defined parts of the Earth in which the same local time is accepted.

Before the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local solar time, depending on the geographical longitude. However, this was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train timetables. The modern time zone system first appeared in North America in the late 19th century. In Russia, it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was accepted throughout the world.

For greater convenience (so as not to enter the local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conditionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are determined not by meridians, but by administrative units (states, cities, regions). This is also done for convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the values \u200b\u200bof minutes and seconds (time) are usually saved, only in some countries, the local time differs from the universal time by 30 or 45 minutes.

Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London is taken as the starting point (prime meridian or belt). At the North and South Poles, the meridians converge at one point, so they usually do not adhere to time zones. Time at the poles is usually equated with universal time, although at polar stations it is sometimes led in its own way.

GMT -12 - Date change meridian

GMT -11 - about. Midway, Samoa

GMT -10 - Hawaii

GMT -9 - Alaska

GMT -8 - Pacific Time (US & Canada), Tijuana

GMT -7 - Mountain Time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Matsatlan)

GMT -6 - Central Time (USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)

GMT -5 - Eastern Time (US & Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogota, Lima, Quito)

GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)

GMT -3 - South American Eastern Time (Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland

GMT -2 - Mid-Atlantic Time

GMT -1 - Azores, Cape Verde

GMT - Greenwich Time (Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia

GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time

GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kiev, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa

GMT +3 - Moscow Time, Eastern African Time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia

GMT +4 - Samara Time, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia

GMT +5 - Yekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)

GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk Time, Central Asian Time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka

GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk Time, Southeast Asia (Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)

GMT +8 - Irkutsk Time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian Time (Perth)

GMT +9 - Yakutsk Time, Korea, Japan

GMT +10 - Vladivostok Time, Eastern Australian Time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific Time (Guam, Port Moresby)

GMT +11 - Magadan Time, Central Pacific Time (Solomon Islands, New Caledonia)

GMT +12 - Wellington

The wind rose is a diagram that depicts the mode of change in the directions and speeds of the wind in a certain place, over a certain period of time. It got its name thanks to a pattern similar to a rose. The first wind roses were known before our era.

It is assumed that sailors invented the wind rose, who tried to identify the patterns of changes in the winds, depending on the season. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.

The diagram is constructed as follows: on the rays coming from the common center in different directions, the value of the repeatability (in percentage) or wind speed is plotted. The rays correspond to the cardinal points: north, west, east, south, north-east, north-north-east, etc. Currently, the wind rose is usually built according to long-term data for the month, season, year.

Clouds are classified using Latin words to define the appearance of clouds as seen from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus clouds, stratus - stratus clouds, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - rain clouds.

In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually, several groups of clouds are distinguished, the first three of which are determined by their height above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds of mixed types.

High clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar latitudes above 3 km, in tropical latitudes above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they are composed mostly of ice crystals. The upper clouds are usually thin and white. The most common forms of top clouds are cirrus and cirrostratus, which can usually be seen in fair weather.

Middle clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km in polar and 2-8 km in tropical. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common type of middle clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shaded parts, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually occurs as a result of air convection, as well as the gradual rise of air ahead of a cold front.

Lower cloudsare located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is high enough, therefore, they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common low cloud types are nimbostratus (nimbostratus) and stratocumulus (stratocumulus), dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.

Vertical development clouds - cumulus clouds, in the form of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. They arise as a result of thermal convection and can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus and cumulonimbus (cumulonimbus). Good weather clouds look like cotton wool. Their lifetime is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young good weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while older clouds are jagged and blurred.

Other types of clouds: contrails (condensation trails), billow clouds (wavy clouds), mammatus (umester cloud), orographic (obstacle clouds) and pileus (cloud cap).

Precipitation is water in a liquid or solid state that falls out of clouds or is deposited from the air on the Earth's surface (dew, frost). There are two main types of precipitation: overburden precipitation (occurs mainly when a warm front passes) and heavy rainfall (associated with cold fronts). The amount of precipitation is measured by the thickness of the water layer that has fallen over a certain period (usually mm / year). On average, precipitation on Earth is about 1000 mm / year. The amount of precipitation less than this value is called insufficient, and more - excessive.

Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the action of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of the oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then water vapor gradually rises, where, under the influence of low temperatures, it condenses (gas is converted into a liquid state) and freezing. This is how clouds form. As the mass of liquid in the cloud builds up, it also becomes heavier. Upon reaching a certain mass, moisture from the cloud spills onto the ground in the form of rain.

If precipitation falls in an area with a low temperature, then moisture droplets freeze on the way to the ground, turning into snow. Sometimes they seem to stick together, causing the snow to fall in large flakes. This happens most often at not very low temperatures and strong winds. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has managed to freeze, snow can persist as a cover for up to several months. In some especially cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, and in warm (tropics, equator) there is no snow at all.

When frozen water particles move within the cloud, they grow and thicken. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail forms. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the surface temperature is high. The sizes of hailstones can be different: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.

Sometimes moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs right on the surface of the earth. This usually happens when the temperature drops at night. In the summertime, moisture can be observed on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. In the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.

Soils are classified by type. The first scientist to classify soils was Dokuchaev. The following types of soils are found on the territory of the Russian Federation: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, arctic soils, permafrost taiga, gray and brown forest soils, and chestnut soils.

Tundra gley soils are found on the plains. Formed without much influence on them by vegetation. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (In the Northern Hemisphere). Gley soils are often places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. Chukotka can serve as an example of tundra soils in Russia, and in the world it is Alaska in the USA. On the territory with such soils, people are engaged in agriculture. This land grows potatoes, vegetables and various herbs. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils in agriculture, the following types of work are used: drainage of the most moisture-saturated lands and irrigation of arid regions. Also, the methods of improving the fertility of these soils include the introduction of organic and mineral fertilizers into them.

Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. Such soil is rather thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil is not restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common on the territory of Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands in the Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and a small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.

Podzolic soils are common in forests. The soil contains only 1-4% humus. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. A reaction with acid takes place. That is why this type of soil is also called sour. Dokuchaev was the first to describe podzolic soils. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and the Far East. In the world there are podzolic soils in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils in agriculture must be properly processed. They must be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers applied to them. Such soils are more useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow on them better than agricultural crops. Sod-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. In composition, they are in many ways similar to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be washed out more slowly with water, in contrast to podzolic soils. Sod-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% of the fertile layer on the surface, and at the depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.

Permafrost taiga soils were formed in forests, in permafrost conditions. They are found only in a continental climate. The deepest depths of these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by the proximity to the permafrost surface. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountain permafrost taiga soils. They form in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are found in Eastern Siberia. They are found in the Far East. More often mountain permafrost-taiga soils are found near small water bodies. Outside Russia, there are such soils in Canada and Alaska.

Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. A prerequisite for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forests and grassy vegetation. Places of formation contain an element necessary for such a soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are gray in color. The humus content in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, the soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils prevail in Russia from Transbaikalia to the Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on the soil.

Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils exist only in temperate warm climates. The color of the soil is brown. Usually brown soils look like this: on the surface of the earth there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20, and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a layer of clay of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. The subtypes vary with temperatures. Allocate: typical, podzolized, gley (surface gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are common in the Far East and at the foothills of the Caucasus. On these soils, unpretentious crops are grown, for example, tea, grapes and tobacco. The forest grows well on such soils.

Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. That says the average soil fertility. This soil has a chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut color. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, farming is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. The following crops grow well on dark chestnut soils without irrigation: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in soil and chemical composition of chestnut soil. Its division into clayey, sandy, sandy loam, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of chestnut soil is varied. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is supported by the annually falling grass and leaves of rare trees in the steppe. You can get good yields on it, provided there is a lot of moisture. After all, the steppes are usually arid. Chestnut soils in Russia are common in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.

There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. They all differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the brink of a crisis. Russian soils must be valued as the land on which we live. Care for the soil: fertilize it and prevent erosion (destruction).

Biosphere - a set of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is inhabited by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a certain position, like other shells, but is located within them. Thus, aquatic animals and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the earth are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.

The composition of living organisms includes about 60 chemical elements, the main of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions. Spores of some plants can withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200 ° C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250 ° C. The inhabitants of the depths of the sea withstand tremendous water pressure, which would instantly crush a person.

Living organisms mean not only animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living things. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the overwhelming part of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful store of solar energy. This is due to plant photosynthesis. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet takes place.

According to experts, life on Earth originated about 3.5 billion years ago in the oceans. This age was assigned to the oldest found organic remains. Since the age of our planet, scientists determine in the region of 4.6 billion years, we can say that living things appeared at an early stage in the development of the Earth. The biosphere has the greatest impact on the rest of the Earth's shell, although not always beneficial. Inside the shell, living organisms also actively interact with each other.

The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its gravity and rotates with the planet. The physical state of the atmosphere is determined by the climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are the composition, density, pressure and temperature of the air. Air density and atmospheric pressure decrease with height. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Transitional regions are located between these layers, which are called tropopause, stratopause, and so on.

The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to an altitude of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the entire mass of the atmosphere and almost all water vapor. The air density is greatest here. With a rise for every 100 m, the temperature in the troposphere decreases by an average of 0.65 °. The upper layer of the troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.

The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here the temperature rises with altitude. On the border with the troposphere, it reaches about -56ºС, and to an altitude of about 50 km it rises to 0ºС. The area between the stratosphere and the mesosphere is called the stratopause. In the stratosphere is the "ozone layer", which defines the upper limit of the biosphere. The ozone layer is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. The complex chemical processes taking place in this shell are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, the northern lights). About 20% of the mass of the atmosphere is concentrated here.

The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the next thermosphere is the mesopause.

The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises rather quickly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.

The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is almost devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near-space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.

The hydrosphere is the watery shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and land surface waters. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of water volume is taken by groundwater, the third is ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is close to 1.39 billion km³.

Water, along with oxygen, is one of the most important substances on earth. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a human being is approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in shaping the topography of the Earth's surface, transporting chemicals in the depths of the Earth and on its surface.

The water vapor in the atmosphere acts as a powerful filter for solar radiation and a climate regulator.

The main volume of water on the planet is the salt water of the World Ocean. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salt). The highest salinity in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this indicator is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of oceanic waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known us chemical elements, only in different proportions. The chemical composition of fresher groundwater is more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.

The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of waters from one species to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in the water that life originated on our planet.

Volumes of water in the hydrosphere:

Sea and ocean waters - 1370 million km³ (94% of the total)

Groundwater - 61 million km³ (4%)

Ice and snow - 24 million km³ (2%)

Land reservoirs (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) - 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)

The lithosphere is the hard shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land on average ranges from 35-40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains, the thickness of the earth's crust is even greater: for example, under the Himalayas, its thickness reaches 90 km. The earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is the thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas of the Pacific Ocean - up to 5 km.

The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and entering the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and the atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues today, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.

Most of the lithosphere is made up of crystalline substances that were formed during the cooling of magma - molten matter in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions were formed. Passing along the cracks in the earth's crust, they cooled down and released the substances contained in them. Since some minerals decompose with changes in temperature and pressure, on the surface they are transformed into new substances.

The lithosphere is affected by the Earth's air and water envelopes (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is reflected in the weathering processes. Physical weathering is a mechanical process, as a result of which the rock is crushed to smaller particles without changing the chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The rate of weathering is also influenced by the biosphere, as well as the topography of the land and climate, water composition and other factors.

As a result of weathering, loose continental sediments have formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. Soils were formed on these deposits, which play an important role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth's crust.

Orientation on the ground includes determining its location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent objects of the terrain (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement to a specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when being in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.

You can navigate by the map, by the compass, by the stars. Various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin can also serve as landmarks.

When orienting on the map, it is necessary to link the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to a river bank or road, and then rotate the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map coincides with the direction of the line on the ground. Items located to the right and left of the line should be located on the terrain on the same sides as on the map.

Orientation of the map by compass is used mainly on terrain that is difficult for orientation (in the forest, in the desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the direction to the north is determined by the compass, and the map is positioned with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that the vertical line of the map's coordinate grid coincides with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass. Remember that compass readings can be affected by metal objects, power lines, and electronic devices in the immediate vicinity.

After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance, after passing which you need to change the direction of travel. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, after finding it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.

In the absence of a compass, the cardinal points can be determined as follows:

The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;

On coniferous trees, resin is more commonly found on the south side;

Annual rings on fresh stumps on the north side are closer to each other;

On the north side, trees, stones, stumps, etc. earlier and more abundantly covered with lichens, fungi;

Anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, the northern one is steep;

In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;

Separate trees have a lush and thicker crown on the south side;

Altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran pickaxes are facing east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;

The raised end of the lower crossbar of the cross of the churches faces north.

A geographic map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and condition of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is depicted on the cards, they are called political, physical, etc.

Maps are classified according to various criteria:

By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (finer than 1: 1,000,000). The scale determines the relationship between the real size of the object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), it is possible, using simple calculations and special measuring tools (ruler, curvimeter), to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.

In terms of content, maps are subdivided into general geographic and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physical and geographical maps are used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.

According to the coverage of the territory, geographical maps are divided into world maps, maps of continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, regions, etc.).

According to their purpose, geographical maps are divided into reference, educational, navigation, etc.