Scale lichens. What does lichen consist of? Lichens in nature. Forms of lichens Crustose lichens are attached to the substrate

After reading this article, you will learn what lichen consists of, what forms of these plants are found, as well as what role they play in nature and in economic activity of people. We will also tell you how they absorb moisture and describe their metabolism.

Where do lichens grow?

Lichens are adapted to life even in the harshest conditions; they often establish themselves in places where other living organisms cannot exist. They extend further north and south than other plants. In the Himalayas they were found at altitudes above 5600 m.

Lichens, of which there are numerous examples, can exist on almost any surface, be it a sun-scorched rock, an arid desert, the back of a beetle, or the bleached bone of a dead animal. One species (Verrucaria serpuloides) lives by immersing itself in the icy waters of Antarctica for a long time, while another (Lecanora esculenta) is carried by the wind. And although in general lichens are very sensitive to all kinds of industrial waste, a species such as Lecanora conizaeoides noticeably thrives in rather polluted places.

Lichen forms

In accordance with their growth characteristics, all known species of these plants (and there are 15,000 of them) are divided into three main groups. Let's briefly describe each of them.

Foliates thrive in areas that receive high rainfall. As you may have guessed, they are named so because they are shaped like leaves. One of their types is shown in the photo below.

The next group is scale (crust). They are resistant to drought and therefore predominate in deserts. tightly adhere to the substrate on which they grow. Caloplaca heppiana, for example, is often found on walls and gravestones. This and a number of similar plant species of interest to us are used as indicators of the age of the substrate. Lichens of this group are often brightly colored, and the fungus is pigmented.

And finally, bushy plants are able to take moisture from the air and are found mainly in humid climate zones. The sizes and appearance of the plants that interest us are very diverse. Some of them form threads 2.75 m or more in length, while others are no larger than the head of a pin.

What does lichen consist of?

These organisms are formed from plants belonging to two different divisions: algae and fungi. Let's tell you more about what lichen consists of. It is one of the most successful examples of mutualism. This term refers to a mutually beneficial partnership that can be established between two dissimilar organisms.

The algal component is a necessary element of what lichen consists of. This is usually either green or blue-green algae. The fungal component is a representative of ascomycetes. With rare exceptions, lichens include only those plants that consist of one type of fungus and one type of algae. Of the latter, the composition of these plants most often (in more than 50% of species) includes the unicellular green alga Trebouxia, but there may also be others.

So, lichens include organisms consisting of a fungus and an algae that are in mutually beneficial cohabitation. Let's give another example. Xanthoria parietina (pictured below) is usually found on rocks along sea coasts, as well as on walls and roofs of houses. Its orange saucer-shaped fruiting bodies (apothecia) are almost indistinguishable in structure from the fruiting body of an isolated mushroom.

A thin top layer of tightly intertwined fungal hyphae can be seen in a cut of lichen. It contains individual cells of green algae. Basically, a lichen is an organism whose body consists of loosely intertwined fungal hyphae, below which there is another thin layer of hyphae, similar to the top one.

Lichen growth

They grow very slowly. Most scale species rarely increase in size by more than 1 mm per year. Other forms of lichens grow a little faster, but they also add no more than 1 cm per year. It follows that the large species of these plants are of a very respectable age; It is believed that individual representatives of some Arctic species are older than 4000 years.

Using the so-called lichenometry, i.e. measuring lichens, they even determine the age of the surface of rocks. This method established the age of glaciers, as well as giant megaliths (large blocks of stone). The latter were found on Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean.

The advanced age of these plants shows that they have a fairly high organization and that the relationship between algae and fungus is well balanced. But the true nature of this relationship is not yet entirely clear.

Metabolism

Photosynthetic algae, like other green plants, provide food for both partners, since the fungus does not have chlorophyll. Simple carbohydrates, synthesized by the algae, are secreted by it and absorbed by the fungus, where they are converted into other carbohydrates. This carbohydrate metabolism underlies the symbiotic relationship that led to the formation of lichen. The transfer of nutrients from algae to fungus occurs very quickly: it was found that fungi manage to convert sugars coming from algae within three minutes from the moment photosynthesis begins.

Moisture absorption

Lichens, absorbing a lot of moisture, change significantly in volume. Their height increases significantly. There is no separation of organs that give and absorb moisture in these plants. The cortex performs both of these functions. Lichens also do not have devices that protect them from transpiration, which are well developed, for example, in vascular plants. Most of the organisms we are interested in receive moisture from the air, and not from the soil. They absorb water vapor. Only some species that attach to the substrate have the ability to take part of the moisture from it.

Use of lichens

Lichens have a variety of uses in nature: they serve as food for animals (for example, they make up two-thirds of the diet of reindeer), are used as nesting material by birds, and provide shelter for many species of small invertebrates such as ticks, beetles, butterflies and snails. They also bring benefits to humans. Extracts from lichens were once used to dye fabrics from which they were sewn. They produced yellow, brown, red and purple
paints. Intermediate colors were obtained by additional dyeing.

(Cetraria islandica) has been used as a cough suppressant for over two centuries. Usnic acid present in some lichens is used by humans to treat superficial wounds and tuberculosis.

Modern research has discovered that they contain antibiotics that are effective against diseases such as pneumonia and scarlet fever. In addition, these plants are also used in industry. Thus, from the lichen Roccella sp. a special litmus is obtained - a chemical indicator that turns red in an acidic environment and blue in an alkaline environment.

Lichens have an important difference from all other living things. Two organisms always coexist in the body of a lichen - a fungus and an algae.

Lichen structure

The body of a lichen is called a thallus or thallus. Based on the external structure of the thallus, lichens are divided into three groups:

• scale;
• leafy;
• bushy.

Rice. 1. Types of lichen thalli.

The thallus of any organisms of the kingdom of fungi and lichens is formed by filaments of mycelium, which are called hyphae. Between the hyphae in the lichen are algae cells. Most often these are unicellular green algae, but in some lichens they are filamentous multicellular, those that, in their free form, form mud in water bodies.

Rice. 2. Internal structure of lichen.

Symbiosis

Symbiosis is the joint activity of organisms. different types, in which each organism benefits from the other.

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In lichen, symbiosis proceeds like this. Algae produces organic matter, which the mushroom consumes. The mushroom uses hyphae to absorb environment water with substances dissolved in it and creates a moist environment for the algae.

This symbiosis is more beneficial for the fungus. A mushroom cannot live without algae, but the algae can and, if separated from the fungus, develops faster.

Reproduction

Lichens most often reproduce in two ways:

• pieces of the thallus that accidentally break off and then germinate, forming a new organism;
• special particles in which algae cells are surrounded by hyphae.

Such particles can be located on the surface of the lichen or inside the thallus. Over time, the thallus bursts and the particles fly away. When they germinate, they form new thalli.

Rice. 3. Vegetative propagation of lichens.

In addition, the lichen fungus reproduces by spores. Spores are small cells of the fungus that, after maturation, fly out of the crevices of the lichen. Having met the corresponding type of algae, the spores germinate and form a new lichen with it.

What is "reindeer moss"?

"Reindeer moss", or moss, is not a separate type of moss or lichen. Resin moss is the name of a whole group of lichen species growing in the tundra.

Spreading

Lichens are found all over the Earth, in Antarctica, in deserts, and in mountains. There are more of them in forests than in steppes and deserts.

Mandatory conditions for the life of lichens are sufficient light and humidity. Illumination is important for algae, since in it the formation of organic substances occurs only in the light.

The meaning of lichens

Tundra lichens are the main food of reindeer. Reindeer roam the tundra in search of better pastures. Pigs, sheep and cows can also eat reindeer moss.

Some species of snails feed on lichens. Some species are also edible for humans. Paints and some medicines are also obtained from lichens.

Interesting facts about the use of lichens by humans:

• as diapers;
• to preserve products (due to their suppression of bacteria);
• to obtain glucose (the method was developed in the USSR during wartime);
• as a source of vitamin C.

Cetraria lichen is included in the recipes of many Icelandic dishes. traditional cuisine. It is added to porridges, soups, sausages, cottage cheese, bread, as well as lollipops used for throat diseases.

What have we learned?

Preparing a report or homework in biology in grade 5 on the topic “Lichens” you need to pay attention to the following: lichens are fungi and algae living together. Their relationship is called symbiosis, but for the fungus it is more beneficial. Lichens are unpretentious and widespread. The nutritional value of lichens for humans is small, but in the northern regions lichens are irreplaceable for livestock farming.

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The structure of lichens

The appearance of lichens is quite varied. These are the long gray beards of usnei fluttering in the wind, and the white-gray bushes of “deer moss” crunching underfoot in a dry pine forest, and the bright orange circles of xanthoria on the bark of aspens, and crustose lichens of all colors and shades on stones and concrete slabs, grown so tightly that it is difficult to scrape them off. The first difference between lichens and fungi and algae that catches your eye is their very special appearance. You will never find such a variety of shapes and colors that are found in lichens in terrestrial algae and fungi. More than 20,000 species of lichens are now known, each of which differs in its external structure (there are, however, types of lichens that are externally indistinguishable from each other). Now try to imagine so many species of cows associated with symbiosis with ciliates, or 20,000 species of green amoebas!

Life forms of lichens.1 – scale (xanthorium); 2 – bushy (cladonia); 3 – leafy (dog peltiger). The famous "deer moss", or reindeer moss , – actually a common name for 40 species of cladonia , which form the basis of the diet of reindeer in winter

The special external structure of lichens, which is not found in either algae or fungi, is only their first distinguishing feature. The internal structure of the lichen is no less peculiar.

If we examine sections of different types of lichens under a microscope, we will see approximately the same picture: tangled grayish fungal threads and green algae cells between them. The internal structure of different lichens differs only in the relative positions of fungal hyphae and algae cells. In the most simply structured lichens, the algae cells lie randomly in the thickness of the thallus (the body of the lichen), but in most species the thallus is formed by several layers that are clearly distinguishable from each other.

The top of the lichen body is covered with “bark” or, more precisely, a crustal layer. This layer is a dense interweaving of fungal hyphae that perform a protective function, primarily protecting against mechanical damage. In addition, it is in the crustal layer that lichen acids accumulate, some of which give the lichen thallus its bright color. The concentration of lichen acids in the crustal layer directly depends on the amount sunlight. For example, xanthoria wallii, grown in the sun, is bright orange, but in the shade it loses its orange color, acquiring a grayish-greenish color.

As a rule, lichens of the highlands and subpolar regions are very brightly colored. It is known that these regions of the globe are characterized by high intensity of solar radiation. Under such conditions, a large amount of pigments and lichen acids are concentrated in the outer layers of the thalli. It is believed that the colored layers protect the underlying algae cells from excessive light intensity.

Just beyond the crust lies a green layer of algae. The “bark” is translucent, and the algae, protected by the crustal layer from excess water loss, are at the same time provided with the necessary amount of light for photosynthesis to occur. Under the algae layer there is most often a heart-shaped layer. The core occupies the largest volume in the body of the lichen and consists of loosely woven fungal hyphae. Through the loose core, air flows freely to the algae cells, providing them with oxygen for breathing and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Air enters the core through special ventilation pores in the “bark” of the lichen.

As you can see, the internal structure of lichens is also unique: neither fungi nor algae have a bark, a photosynthetic layer, a core, or air-bearing pores - all these “purely lichen” features internal structure allow us to talk about lichen as a single independent organism, and not just about friendly relations between a fungus and an alga.

Cross section through a simple thallus of a primitive lichen (left) and a complex thallus (right)1 – seaweed; 2 – crustal layer; 3 – layer of algae;4 – core

Finally, such amazing things can be found only in the composition of lichen. formations, like fatty, searching and moving fungal hyphae.

Spare nutrients are deposited in fatty hyphae; they look like sacs swollen with fat reserves. Thin searching hyphae penetrate into remote corners of the thallus in search of algal cells. After an algae cell is found, the moving hyphae come into action. With their help, algae move closer to the crustal layer of the lichen, towards the light.

Gifs: 1 – fat; 2 – seekers; 3 – moving

First, the moving hyphae surround the algae cell, which, “in their opinion,” was out of place. Then they begin to push the “lost” algae towards the core layer: the bundle of moving hyphae grows and puts pressure on the surrounding fungal cells, pushing the fungal cells surrounding the algae to the sides. As a result, a cavity is formed into which the algae is pushed through the pressure of the growing moving hyphae. So, step by step, the moving hyphae gradually move the algae cells closer to the light source, forming the algal layer of the lichen. In this case, the lichen fungus is very reminiscent of a shepherd, carefully ensuring that not a single cow strays from the herd.

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A lichen is traditionally considered to be an association of fungus and algae that has a thallus. Its “framework” is provided by a mushroom, and it also holds the algae with the help of special suction cups (compare with “sea lichen”). An important property is the ability of these organisms to produce their own acids. An association may include 1 species of fungus and 2 species of algae or cyanobacteria. The oldest finds include specimens found in China in marine fossils 550-640 million years ago. The first mentions were found in an illustrated book by Theophrastus from the 300s BC.

In botany, these organisms are not classified as a separate taxonomic group. All species are named after the fungal component (for example, xanthorium).

According to the nature of the thallus, lichens are distinguished:

• homogeneous on the cut (colemma). This species includes crustose lichens;
• heterogeneous (cladonia, xanthoria). Representatives of this species are bushy forms. Such forms are often colored differently.

The diversity of lichens is distinguished mainly by life forms:

All members of this family have symbiotic associations with green algae (trebuxia), which is why they are considered very representative specimens (about 50% of varieties include this component).

There are representatives of bushy and leafy forms. Parmelias, within the same species, are found in various colors: white, gray, with the presence of green, yellow or brown shades. When cut, they can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. When potassium lye is applied to the thallus, it begins to turn yellow.

Due to the extremely high morphological diversity and complexity, many specimens are difficult to accurately identify to the species level.

The family is distributed in all climatic regions (from the tropics to the Arctic); species can grow on many types of substrate: on trunks and branches of various tree species (living and dead), as well as on stones. Prefers places with good lighting. Relatively easily adapts to the polluted air of large cities.

The example of Parmelia shows that the classification of lichens by form does not always correspond to the actual position.

The genus received the name “cut grass” for its hemostatic properties. Red Army soldiers used parmelia powder to treat wounds during World War II. It was also used as an additive for flour.

Problematic and useful moss

It is often not clear which groups of lichens belong to moss. This name may refer to the following species:

• representatives of the clans Cladonia and Cetraria;
• fruticose lichens;
• foliose lichens;
• crustose lichens.

Many “popular sources” consider moss moss and “reindeer moss” to be exact synonyms, but this is not the case. In these species, a foliose thallus first develops, which later turns into a bushy thallus. These are the exceptions to the rules.

Yagel in the service of history

Crucible lichens helped determine the age of the stone idols of Easter Island. Comparing photographs taken about 100 years ago with modern measurements helped calculate the average annual growth of this plant. Now, thanks to extreme species, scientists are clarifying data on the movements of glaciers and changes in their size.

Found beneath layers of volcanic ash from Vesuvius, orange-hued textile materials appear to have been treated with dyes based on a local species of xanthorium.

It is known that the Vikings used reindeer moss in baking, so finds of its components may be evidence of their presence in remote places.

Application in medicine

Due to the high content of usnic acid, sometimes up to 10 percent by weight, many have antibiotic and analgesic properties. According to some reports, this substance can slow down the development of tuberculosis. But remember, a large amount of acid is a contraindication, and not a desirable indicator, as there is a health hazard. For this reason, bearded lichen and many types of moss need to be soaked in a solution baking soda or more long time in clean running water. Derivatives of this acid are capable of killing many types of bacteria and suppressing the proliferation of highly resistant ones that have developed resistance to commonly used antibiotics. The peoples of the north enjoy medicinal properties"reindeer moss" in folk remedies.

Cetraria have found use in the production of medicines against diarrhea, viral and microbial colds, and to stimulate hunger in gastrointestinal disorders.

Contraindications: preparations based on moss moss are not recommended for use by pregnant and lactating women due to the individual sensitivity of small children and the tendency to develop allergies.

If you start using “natural preparations”, do not forget to consult with qualified specialists.

Use in the food industry

During civil war, due to a shortage wheat flour, found use for dried lichens stored in pharmacists' warehouses.

In northern countries, reindeer moss is used to feed small and large ruminants and pigs due to its high satiety, which is three times higher than potatoes. In Sweden they still brew folk food today. alcoholic drinks based on lichens.

Recently, an innovative project for the production of bread, seasonings and even confectionery was launched in Yamal. They promise that the following fast food menu will appear: crackers, the production of which does not require yeast, several types of sauce, buns and other goodies. We must not forget that due to the newness of the product, contraindications have not yet been fully studied.

Determination of the environmental situation

With an increase in air pollution, fruticose lichens disappear first, then foliose lichens, and lastly scale lichens (Xanthoria eleganta). Due to the change in color of xanthoria, the butterflies of industrial territories also change their color, usually to dark gray shades.

The closer to the center of contamination is the indicator organism, the thicker its body becomes. With increasing concentration, it occupies a smaller area and reduces the number of fruiting bodies. With severe atmospheric pollution, the surface of most lichens acquires white, brown or purple hues. The most dangerous pollutant for them is sulfur dioxide. If you suffer from diseases of the respiratory system and have found the above features of these organisms, then you can perceive this as a contraindication to further living in such a place.

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Lichens are a symbiosis of a fungus and algae, i.e., they cannot be considered a single organism, since its individual parts have different genomes.

Lichen structure

The vegetative body of a lichen is called a thallus.

The hyphae of the fungus form the basis of the thallus, forming the lower crust attached to the substrate, and the surface crustal layer, causing the shape and color of the lichen.

Seaweed , occupying the cavities between the hyphae,form the gonidial layer.

Under a layer of algae, fungal hyphae are located loosely, large gaps between them are filled with air - this is the core. The core is followed by the lower crust, which is similar in structure to the upper crust. Bundles of hyphae (rhizoids) pass through the lower cortex from the core, which attach the lichen to the substrate.

Crustose lichens do not have a lower bark, and the fungal hyphae of the core grow together directly with the substrate.

Rice. Lichen structure

Functions of the cortex:

• protective;
• supporting;
• attaching (nand rhizoids are formed in the lower crustal layer);
• gas exchange (through perforations (dead areas of the crustal layer), cracks and breaks in the crustal layer).

Algae Zone Function:

• photosynthesis;
• accumulation of organic matter.

Core function:

• conducting air to algae cells;
• support function (atsome fruticose lichens).

Lichens form mainly:

• fungi - ascomycetes and basidiomycetes;
• algae - most often green (cyanobacteria are less common).

The essence of symbiosis:

• Algae gives the fungus organic substances obtained during photosynthesis.
• The fungus, having an extensive mycelium, provides the algae with water and minerals.

Such symbioses of certain types of fungus and algae are so stable that they are perceived as a certain type of organism.

Classification of lichens

According to the shape of the thallus, lichens are divided into:

• scale: attached to the substrate with its entire surface (rhizocarpone);
• leafy: attached to the substrate at separate points (parmelia, xanthoria).
  In some leaf lichens, the thallus is attached with a short stalk. (gomfa), located in the central part of the thallus.
• bushy: attached at one point and branching (cladonia, moss, usnea).
  In bushy radially built lichens, at the periphery of the cross section there is a bark, under it there is a gonidial layer, and inside there is a core.
  Crumbose lichens grow from their periphery, while bushy lichens grow from the ends of their “twigs.”

Rice. Crustose lichen Fig. foliose lichen

Rice. Fruticose lichen

Reproduction of lichens

Vegetative, sexual and asexual reproduction occurs in lichens.

Asexual reproduction:

• fragmentation;
• soredia- microscopic glomeruli, consisting of one or more algae cells surrounded by fungal hyphae; are formed inside the thallus, and after ripening they come to the surface and burst, scattering diaspores;
• isidia- small, variously shaped outgrowths of the upper surface of the thallus that break off when ripe.

In both cases, the separated structure includes both a fungal and an algal component.

Sexual reproduction:

• the formation of fruiting bodies of various shapes, where spores of sexual reproduction ripen. The development and maturation of the fruiting body can last up to 10 years, and then for a number of years the fruiting body is capable of producing spores. A lot of spores are formed, but not all of them germinate. Germination requires conditions, primarily certain temperature and humidity.
  

Features of the ecology of lichens

Lichens are characterized by very slow growth:from fractions of a millimeter to several centimeters per year.Most likely, this is due to the small relative volume of autotrophic algae that synthesize organic substances.

The lichens of tropical forests have the highest growth rate, while the inhabitants of rocks and tundra have the slowest.

The low growth rate means that lichens mainly grow in places where they do not encounter competition from plants.First of all, these are mountainous areas, where they are pioneers on stones and rocks, creating primary soils.Lichens do not encounter competitors in the tundra, where plant roots cannot develop due to frozen soils.Lichens often grow as epiphytes in tree crowns.

The ability of the fungus to absorb and retain water allows lichens to exist in extremely dry conditions. They can absorb water not only during rains, but also from fog and air saturated with water vapor.

It is interesting that the age of the thallus is often several hundred and thousand years.

The meaning of lichens

• formation of primary soils in primary biogeocenoses;
• main producersin tundra communities.

Use of lichens by humans:

• lichens are food for tundra reindeer herding;
• some types of lichens are eaten;
• are raw materials for the production of dyes (for example, litmus);
• used in folk medicine (for example, sleep);
• used in environmental monitoring due to their high sensitivity to chemical pollutants.